AN INTRODUCTION TO CONCEPTS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE,

DEMOCRATIC DECENTRALISATION, LOCAL GOVERNANCE

AND SOCIAL ACCOUNTABILTIY

I) THE CONCEPT OF GOOD GOVERNANCE

All around the world, we hold certain ideals that steer us to that which is good, not just for
ourselves but for the rest of society. These ideals guide and lead us to demand from our
leaders integrity and honour in the process of decision-making and the process by which
decisions are implemented or not implemented. They move us to work and demand for
good governance.

But what is governance? And what is good governance?

“‘Governance’ is the exercise of power or authority – political, economic, administrative or

otherwise – to manage a country's resources and affairs. It comprises the mechanisms,
processes and institutions, through which citizens and groups articulate their interests,
exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences. ‘Good
governance’ means competent management of a country’s resources and affairs in a
manner that is open, transparent, accountable, equitable and responsive to people’s needs.” 1

Good governance is based on the following principles:2

a. Good governance is focusing on the

Good Governance…
organization’s purpose and on outcomes
• Is effective and equitable
for citizens and service users
b. Good governance is performing • Promotes the rule of law
effectively in clearly defined functions • Ensures that political, social and
and roles economic priorities are based on a
c. Good governance is promoting values broad consensus in society
for the whole organization and • Ensures that the poorest and most
demonstrating the values of good vulnerable members of society are
governance through behavior heard in decision making over the
d. Good governance is making informed, allocation of development resources.
transparent decisions and managing risk
e. Good governance is developing the capacity and capability of the governing body to be
effective
f. Good governance is engaging stakeholders and making accountability real.

These principles if applied in the way governments make and implement decisions will
reveal the following characteristics:
a. Participation
In a government where good governance is the norm, citizens can actively participate
1
The Australian Government’s Overseas Aid Program (AusAID). August 2000. Good Governance: Guiding
Principles for Implementation. Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), Canberra.
2
The Independent Commission on Good Governance in Public Services. 2004. The Good Governance Standard
for Public Services. OPM and CIPFA.

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 in the process of decision-making, directly or indirectly through groups or agencies that
represent their interests.
b. Rule of law
Good governance enables laws, particularly human rights, to be implemented fairly and
impartially.
c. Transparency
Transparency is built on the free flow of information. Processes, institutions and
information are directly accessible to those concerned with them, and enough
information is provided to understand and monitor them.
d. Responsiveness
In a government exercising good governance, agencies promptly serve and respond to
the needs of its constituents.
e. Consensus orientation
In any society, interests and opinions are varied. Good governance strives to mediate
these differences so that a broad consensus on what is best for all is always achieved.
f. Equity
All men and women, regardless of age, gender or status in life have opportunities to
improve or maintain their well-being.
g. Effectiveness and efficiency
A government exercising good governance produces results that meet the needs of its
people while making the best use of resources.
h. Accountability
In good governance, decision-makers in government, the private sector and civil
society organisations are answerable to the public, as well as to institutional
stakeholders.
i. Strategic vision
Leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance
and human development, along with a sense of what is needed for such development.

Good governance is an ideal which is difficult to practice and more especially to demand,
especially in a society where alongside noble values run dirty politics and corruption.
Furthermore, citizens, most of the time, mistakenly perceive good governance as a value
attached merely to public officials. For good governance to be a reality, people should
realize that it is not a practice exclusive to government.

Making good governance work is necessary, although difficult. But it is a must.

Accountable governments are essential in the fight against poverty. They protect human
rights, provide security, promote economic growth and deliver essential services, such as
health and education.3 Good governance leads to growth and progress for all. It ensures
sustainable human development.

Citizens are well part of government – they are not mere beneficiaries or recipients; they
are the electorate. It is the citizens that put people in office, and it is their efforts that keep
them there. They should play an active role in making good governance work. They should
move to make governments accountable. One way to do this is through social
accountability.

3
2007. Governance. In the Data Report. Available at http://www.thedatareport.org

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II) THE CONCEPT OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE

Democratic governance refers to the management of societal affairs in accordance with the
universal principles of democracy as a system of rule that maximizes popular consent and
participation, the legitimacy and accountability of rulers, and the responsiveness of the
latter to the expressed interests and needs of the public.4 The most fundamental attributes
of democratic governance are the conduct within a country of free and fair elections; the
existence of a reasonably well-organized and competitive party system; a delineation of,
respect for, and protection of basic civil liberties and human rights within the society; and,
the encouragement, support of and active participation of a vigorous civil society and, in
particular, strong interest groups.

On the basis of the definition provided above, three major aspects of democratic
governance can be identified:5

First, democratic governance is both an end in itself and a means towards other ends. It is
an end in itself as a moral imperative consistent with the permanent aspiration of human
beings for freedom and for a better social and political order, one that is more humane and
more or less egalitarian.
Second, democratic governance is never perfect, for it is a process rather than an end-
product. It is, all over the world a continuous process of expanding the political space to
ensure for everyone equal access to basic rights and liberties. In ancient Greece, slaves and
women were not citizens and could not therefore take part in the political process. In many
ancient African societies, political decision making was the preserve of older men, while
women and young people were excluded. In many parts of the world today, ethnic and
racial minorities are still discriminated against with respect to the enjoyment of their full
citizenship rights. Even where such rights are guaranteed in national constitutions, the poor
and vulnerable groups may for a variety of reasons not be able to exercise them fully. All
over the world support for democratic governance is precisely focused on expanding the
political space to allow civil society, women, the poor and the marginalized to make their
voices heard on all issues of concern to them.
Third, democratic governance is a form of political practice based on universal principles
of rule of law, popular legitimacy, participation and the accountability and alternance of
rulers. With well functioning institutions and representation mechanisms from the
community to the national and international levels, democratic governance should
maximize popular consent and participation, the legitimacy and accountability of rulers,
and better management of available resources to respond to the basic needs and aspirations
of the population. In this instance, democratic governance is primarily viewed as a means
towards other ends, namely development and human security.

What is the relationship between democratic governance and decentralisaton?

4
Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges, 2004 Democratic Governance And Human Rights In The International
Framework, Keynote Address, for the Joint Monthly Assembly of the Finnish Advisory Board for Human
Rights and the Finnish Development Policy Committee
5
Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges, 2004 Democratic Governance And Human Rights In The International
Framework, Keynote Address, for the Joint Monthly Assembly of the Finnish Advisory Board for Human
Rights and the Finnish Development Policy Committee

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For decentralization processes to sustain some amount of democracy is essential. It seems
evident that a more decentralized governance system is likely to be a more democratic
system. Decentralization provides more opportunities for civic space and citizen
participation and, consequently, for independent groups to emerge, for political opposition
to develop and for individuals to practice and experience the exercise of free choice in
democratic governance. For all these reasons, decentralization does represent a significant
strategy in efforts to democratize societies.

III) THE CONCEPT OF DECENTRALISATION

What is decentalisation?

Decentralisation is the transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions from the
central government to intermediate and local governments or quasi-independent
government organizations and/or the private sector.6

How many types of decentalisation are there?

There are basically three types of decentralisation within the public sector:
1) Political decentralisation is the transfer of political power and decision-making
authority to sub-national levels such as elected village councils, district councils and state
level bodies.

2) Fiscal decentralisation involves a level of resource reallocation to local government

which would allow it to function properly, along with fund allocated service delivery
responsibility. Fiscal decentralisation rules regulates four areas: (i) expenditure
assignment; (ii) revenue assignment; (iii) intergovernmental transfers, and (iv) sub-national
borrowing

3) Administrative decentralisation involves the transfer of decision-making authority,

resources and responsibilities for the delivery of selected public services from the central
government to other lower levels of government, agencies, and field offices of central
government line agencies.

Administrative decentralization can be of three kinds. They are as follows:

a) Devolution: The local government has full responsibility for hiring/firing of staff
and assigning authority/responsibility. It is the most radical form of administrative
decentralization.
b) De-concentration is the transfer of authority and responsibility from one level of
the central government to another, with the local unit accountable to the central
government ministry or agency, which has been decentralised.
c) Delegation, on the other hand, is the redistribution of authority and responsibility
to local units of government or agencies that are not always necessarily branches,
or local offices of the delegating authority, with the bulk of accountability still
vertically directed upwards towards the delegating central unit.

What is divestment?

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Hans Bjørn Olsen, 2007, Decentralisation And Local Governance, SDC

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Divestment is a term originating from finance and business, but is also used in the context
of public administration. Divestment occurs when planning and administrative
responsibility or other public functions are transferred from government to voluntary,
private or non-governmental institutions. This often involves contracting out partial service
provision or administrative functions, deregulation or full privatisation. For example, the
provision of technical support to lower levels of government in the water sector via private
companies instead of a national water ministry would be a form of divestment.7

Why is decentralization important?8

Decentralisation is an integral part of democratization: Decentralisation is an integral

part of the logic of democratisation – the power of a people to determine their own form of
government, representation, policies and services. In designing decentralisation strategies,
it is important to ensure adequate processes of accountability, transparency and
responsiveness by all societal actors.

Decentralisation is a logical application of core characteristics of good governance:

Decentralisation is the logical application of the core characteristics of good governance at
the sub-national and local levels. These characteristics include accountability,
transparency, rule of law and responsiveness. In designing decentralisation policies and
programmes, the core characteristics of good governance provide a set of practical
guidelines to follow in designing mechanisms, which will "operationalise" these principles.

Decentralisation is a mix of three types of functions and relationships: Decentralisation

is a mixture of administrative, fiscal and political functions and relationships. In the design
of decentralisation systems all three must be included.

Decentralisation involves multiple areas, actors and sectors: Decentralisation is a

complex phenomenon involving many geographic locations/entities, societal actors and
social sectors. The geographic location/entities include the international, national, sub-
national, and local. The societal actors include government, the private sector and civil
society. The social sectors include all development themes - political, social, cultural and
environmental. In designing decentralisation policies and programmes it is essential to use
a systems-approach encompassing these overlapping social sectors and the different
requirements which each makes.

Decentralisation has a mix of four dimensions: Decentralisation involves four

dimensions – the collective/exterior, the collective/interior, the individual/exterior and the
individual/interior. The collective/exterior has to do with the institutional and legal forms
and procedures. The collective/interior deals with the societal culture – the set of values
and assumptions which are often unspoken or unacknowledged but nevertheless play a
powerful role in human relationships. The individual/exterior dimension has to do with the
observable behaviour of individuals within the various societal institutions, whether

7
European Commission, 2007, Supporting Decentralisation and Local Governance in Third Countries
8
R.Work, 1998, Factors to Consider in Designing Decentralised Governance Policies and Programmes to
Achieve Sustainable People-Centred Development, Management Development and Governance Division,
United Nations Development Programme, New York

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government, private sector or civil society. The dimension of the individual/interior deals
with the mindset, world-view, mental models, emotions and intuitions of individuals within
institutions. Effective decentralised governance planning must be based on an analysis of
these four dimensions

What Decentralisation is not!

Decentralisation is not an alternative to centralization: Both decentralization and

centralization are needed. The complementary roles of national and sub-national actors
should be determined by analysing the most effective ways and means of achieving a
desired objective. For example, a national road system should be designed with both local
input and national coordination. Foreign policy should be a national function based on the
views of the citizenry. Solid waste management should primarily be dealt with through
local mechanisms. And so forth. In designing a decentralisation strategy it is imperative
that such an analysis be done.

Decentralisation is not exclusively public sector reform: It is much more than public
sector, civil service or administrative reform. It involves the roles and relationships of all
of the societal actors, whether governmental, private sector or civil society. The design of
decentralisation programmes must take this into account. This is why UNDP prefers the
use of the term "decentralised governance" rather than the term decentralisation.

What is the rationale behind decentralisation?

To achieve the goals of sustainable and people-centred development: Decentralisation

is a form and process of governance. Just as there can be good governance at the national
level there can be good decentralised governance. Good governance includes the
mechanisms and processes, which enable a society to achieve more sustainable and people-
centred development. Good decentralised governance includes the forms and procedures
that allow a society to achieve at the sub-national and local levels the goals of poverty
eradication, sustainable livelihoods, environmental regeneration, and gender equality. It is
therefore imperative that in the design of decentralised governance policies and
programmes these long-term goals be reflected in the mechanisms and institutions being
proposed at the national, sub-national and local levels. It cannot be assumed that these
goals will automatically be achieved through decentralisation. They must be designed into
the decentralisation process itself.9

The two perspectives on Decentralisation

Supportive View of Decentralisation Apprehensive View of Decentralisation

• “elections are fair and free and a local • “the governance conditions are such that
competitive political system will emerge” we will only create another layer of state
• “resources will be made available from inefficiency”
the central state or from local taxation” • “decentralisation is too costly a process
• “decision-making on local plans and (including a risk of fiscal indiscipline), so
priorities will take place at local level, not most countries (especially small ones)
9
R. Work, 1998, Factors to Consider in Designing Decentralised Governance Policies and Programmes to
Achieve Sustainable People-Centred Development, Management Development and Governance Division,
United Nations Development Programme, New York

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at the centre” cannot afford it
• “the new democratic system at local level • “decentralisation should not take place
will be able to cope with alternative before the necessary capacity exists at
(traditional) sources of authority” central level ”
• “citizens will be able to exercise voice in • “decentralisation will lead to a clash
the management of local affairs” between different sources of power and
• “decentralising service delivery leads to legitimacies”
better results that benefit poor people” • “there is not enough social capital at local
level to promote effective engagement in
local affairs”
• “decentralisation has uncertain impact on
poverty reduction
Source: EU, 2007

Are there any risks to decentralization?

Financial Equalisation: One of the major risks of decentralisation is the risk of increasing
inequality through fiscal decentralisation that is not balanced throughout the country.
Certain already endowed districts, regions or localities might be better off than poorer
districts and regions, and therefore potentially stand to benefit even further from an
unbalanced fiscal decentralisation process. In such a case equalization measures need to be
taken to avoid the ever-so-present potential of fiscal decentralization perpetuating greater
developmental disparities. A number of countries have recognized this important
consideration and equalization formulae have included the application of discriminatory
fiscal transfers based on the poverty profile of the recipient regions/municipalities.

Local elites: There is a risk that decentralisation can reinforce existing local elite structures
and that local elites capture a new decentralisation process. Obviously this only reinforces
the need to work with both aspects of decentralisation and local governance when trying to
improve local democratic and political processes. The need for a vibrant civil society is
also emphasised here.

Political commitment: It is widely accepted that political commitment on the part of

federal or state governments is a sine qua non of effective democratic decentralisation, and
especially of forms of decentralisation that are specifically geared to the interests of the
poor. Successful pro-poor decentralisation is associated with governing parties that are
politically committed to the democratic empowerment of local governments. Yet it is
essential to consider the wide range of issues that influence decentralisation. There is a
need for a stronger focus on institutional issues, i.e., both on the rules that influence the
behaviour of actors at different levels of government, in the private sector and in civil
society, and on the organisations that implement these rules.

Long-term commitment of donors: If the development of viable local governance

systems is seen as a priority task, it logically follows that the decentralisation policies of
donor agencies call for long-term institutional vision. This is due to the fact that the
process of decentralisation is highly political, fragile and risky, and the need for a long-
term institutional perspective is crucial.10

10
Hans Bjørn Olsen, 2007, Decentralisation And Local Governance, SDC

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What is the link between decentralization and civil society?

Experience worldwide, however, points to the reality that decentralisation has usually
meant the deconcentration or devolution of power and authority from the central
government to sub-national (local government) authorities, be they provincial or district
administrations, urban municipalities, local/rural councils, county authorities, etc. In most
cases, decentralisation stops at this level and rarely do governments recognize that civil
society/grassroots institutions may suffer as much from the centralization of power at the
sub-national level as they did under the country’s central government command. Because
of this recognition, the main challenge now in discussions of local governance is to ensure
that the strengthening of local government through decentralisation moves hand in hand
with a deliberate effort to mobilize and strengthen the civil society structure, processes and
institutions at lower levels in a manner that would allow their relationship with sub-
national authorities to be more interactive and mutually reinforcing.

A related challenge in empowering civil society concerns the extent to which the political
environment is perceived to be supportive of people’s welfare. For civil society to be
effective, a supportive social, institutional, and policy environment must be created, as this
is usually required for the development of the sustainable social trust that is so fundamental
for continued civil society engagement in social welfare issues/interventions. In the
absence of a transparent, accountable and fair system of sharing resources and
opportunities amongst the citizens (e.g. employment opportunities that guarantee minimum
standards of living), the poorer members of society become more preoccupied with basic
economic survival issues than with the more societal common good/pursuits. There is need
to build ‘local governance systems’ tuned to the situation, and the type of support will also
depend on the situation. There is furthermore a need to recognise decentralization reform
as ‘a political process’11.

What is principle of subsidiarity?

Subsidiarity is the principle which states that matters ought to be handled by the lowest
competent authority. Subsidiarity is, ideally or in principle, one of the features of
federalism. The overarching principle of subsidiarity is that problems are best solved in the
subsystem where they arise. Subsystems are encouraged to resolve their conflicts
themselves without referring them to higher authority. Whatever solution is adopted, the
subsystem will have to carry it out. Since their consent is essential, the optimum condition
is for them to resolve their conflicts independently. If a solution is worked out by the
subsystem, appeal to authority is not necessary. The principle of subsidiarity, therefore,
applies to those areas where a central government does not have exclusive competence, the
principle delineating those areas where the government should and should not act. This
means that the concept of subsidiarity has both a legal and a political dimension.12

IV) THE CONCEPT OF LOCAL GOVERNANCE

11
Hans Bjørn Olsen, 2007, Decentralisation And Local Governance, SDC
12
Hans Bjørn Olsen, 2007, Decentralisation And Local Governance, SDC

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What is local government?

Local government is an umbrella term. The term may have different meanings depending
on the part of the world one is dealing with. Taking this into account, local government can
mean county, municipality, city, town, township, local public authority, a school district,
regional or interstate government entities, or any agency or instrumentality of a local
government. Despite this multiplicity of entities, it is useful to distinguish between two
broad types of local government:
• Local state administrations, which manage and run local affairs on a day-to-day basis;
and
• Local representative bodies, such as municipal councils. These are governance bodies
that may either be directly or indirectly elected or appointed, by a higher-level government
or community representatives. There are also mixed forms of governance bodies whereby
some representatives are appointed and others elected.13

What is local governance?

Local governance comprises a set of institutions, mechanisms and processes through which
citizens and their groups can articulate their interests and needs, mediate their differences,
and exercise their rights and obligations at the local level. It emphasises the need to look
beyond the narrow perspective of legal frameworks and local government entities. It seeks
to include the multiplicity of formal and informal relationships between different actors in
development (e.g. local government, the private sector, associations, de-concentrated
agencies, CSOs) that shape and influence the output and effectiveness of political and
administrative systems at a sub-national level14. The building blocks of good local
governance are many: citizen participation, partnerships among key actors at the local
level, capacity of local actors across all sectors, multiple flows of information, institutions
of accountability, and a pro-poor orientation (UNDP 2004).

What is local economic development?

Local (economic) development refers to a process by which a variety of local institutions

and actors mobilise and work together to plan and implement sustainable local
development strategies in a given territory. Support to decentralisation can also be pursued
through complementary reforms aimed at creating strong linkages with local economic
development and poverty reduction.

The overall purpose of local economic development is to build up the economic capacity
and legal regulatory framework for a local area to improve its economic future and the
quality of life for all. It is a process by which public, business and non-governmental sector
partners interact through dialogue and joint activities. The stimulation of healthy economic
competition is part of the approach and can help kindle economic growth and generate
employment.15

13
European Commission, 2007, Supporting Decentralisation and Local Governance in Third Countries
14
Hans Bjørn Olsen, 2007, Decentralisation And Local Governance, SDC
15
European Commission, 2007, Supporting Decentralisation and Local Governance in Third Countries

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What is the difference between decentralisation and local governance?

The main differences between decentralisation and local governance are in the actual
actors participating in the process and the mode of interaction between governments, the
private sector and civil society.

Decentralisation pertains to public sector institutional and organisational reforms and

processes and the support needed for these. Local governance pertains more to supporting
the creation of an enabling environment where multi-stakeholder processes - including
public and private sector, as well as civil society, interact to foster effective local-
development processes. This is summarised in the table below:

Decentralisation Reforms Local Governance

Support to the formal public sector Support to the wider involvement of
elements of a decentralisation reform citizens, NGOs, private sector in
relation to working with and
monitoring local governments
Examples include: Examples include:
· Assistance to central ministries · Assistance to private sector
responsible for reform to develop new contractors to enable them to bid for
policies and legislation. decentralised works contracts.
· Capacity building of local · Civic education and support to CBOs
governments for improved planning, to strengthen the capacity of local
financial management, etc. communities to hold their local
· Provision of development funding to governments accountable.
local governments for water, roads, · Support to gender equality and
health, etc. empowerment

Source, Olsen 2007

Local governance issues can be pursued even without decentralisation. However,

decentralization reinforces and legitimises local governance processes when correctly
done.

V) THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY

What is transparency?

Transparency implies that the public in general, or at least those directly affected, should
obtain information from the state about the rationale underlying decisions, decision-
making criteria, the intended manner of implementing a decision, and any insight into its
effects. Participatory planning and budgeting exercises can promote increased transparency
at local levels in resource allocations and increased transparency can be ensured in
management of public funds (both revenue and expenditures) through citizen participation
in user committees (schools, health clinics, water boreholes)16.

What is participation?

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Participation implies that all population segments need to be connected to the political and
social processes that affect them. This means that public forums exist where different
groups can express dissenting opinions and personal interests, and where these viewpoints
are treated as serious input in the decision-making process. At local government level, the
most widely used methodology is that of bottom-up planning approach which encourages
wider community participation in setting priorities for local development.17

What is accountability?

Accountability refers to the control of the power exercised within state and society, as well
as to the obligation for the people holding power to explain their decisions. In addition, it
concerns the duty of the controlling agencies to reward good performance and to sanction
abuses of power. Accountability presupposes clear definition of the functions, duties, and
rules for the scope of action of public and private institutions. In terms of decentralisation
and local governance, accountability relations change and one of the foremost issues is the
upward accountability from local governments to the national level. Yet at the same time,
the downward accountability to local citizens is a very crucial aspect of local governance
and decentralization.18

What is Social Accountability?

It is citizens working together, to ensure their governments are managing their resources
effectively, transparently, and meeting their community’s needs. The people themselves
become the key to strengthening the demand for government services.19 In social
accountability, the people ensure that their government works for them. It enables people
to ensure that government is working for the growth and progress of all its constituents.

Social accountability sprang from peoples’ aspirations for human development and the
core goals of promoting poverty reduction and effective and sustainable development
through citizens’ participation in governance. It requires public officials, private
employers, or service providers to answer for their policies, actions, and use of funds. It is
an approach, initiated by civil society or the state, towards building an accountable and
responsive government by relying on civic engagement.20

For social accountability to be effective, four building blocks or pillars are needed. These
are access to and effective use of information; organized and capable civil society
organizations or citizen groups (mobilizing public support, advocating, and negotiating
change); an enabling environment (in terms of policy, structure, champions in government,
mechanisms, and platforms) and cultural resonance (i.e, it has to be context specific,
responsive, and transformative).

17
Hans Bjørn Olsen, 2007, Decentralisation And Local Governance, SDC
18
Hans Bjørn Olsen, 2007, Decentralisation And Local Governance, SDC
19
The World Bank. No year. From Shouting to Counting: A New Frontier in Social Development. World
Bank, Washington D.C.
20
Arroyo, Dennis. December 2004. Summary Paper on the Stocktaking of Social Accountability Initiatives in
Asia and the Pacific. World Bank Institute Community Empowerment and Social Inclusion Learning
Program.

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Citizens and the government are the most important players of social accountability. The
government has the duty to facilitate access to all information while the citizens must
assert their right to participate in governance. This means citizens must organize
themselves to be able to engage in this kind of participation.

Social accountability happens in the entire cycle of democratic governance. The idea is that
citizenship should not only be exercised during elections when citizens cast their votes.
The social accountability approach calls for citizens to remain constantly vigilant and
watchful over the performance of elected leaders, bureaucrats, and service providers.

Social accountability covers an extremely broad array of actions that citizens can
potentially take to hold government officials and bureaucrats accountable. These actions
may be carried out by a wide range of actors (e.g., individual citizens, communities,
parliamentarians, CSOs, media), occur at different levels (e.g., local to national), address a
variety of different issues (e.g., public policy, political conduct, public expenditures,
service delivery) and use diverse strategies (e.g., research, monitoring, participatory
planning, civic education, media coverage, coalition building).21

The social accountability approach presumes, first, that government keeps the door open
for people’s participation and, second, that citizens are willing to engage the government.
The dynamics of the relationship is constructive government-citizen partnership where
citizen groups and nongovernment organizations are willing to expand the range of actions
for engaging – or working together – with government in order to assure that government
lives up to its duty of delivering services, improving people’s welfare, and protecting
people’s rights. Decentralization is one avenue to enable citizen groups to make their
governments accountable.

VI) THE ROLE OF SOCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY IN DECENTRALIZATION

Effectiveness of service delivery at the local level is highly enhanced and can only be
sustained if certain conditions are met by the decentralized system of governance. These
conditions include a range of parameters including institutional structures, resources, skills
and capacities both at the central and local levels, participation, partnerships as well as
local leadership among others. Since it has been found that even with decentralization,
good governance may still be glaringly absent, society must find a way to ensure that
services and entitlements due them are granted.

Social accountability and its wide range of methods can be a tool citizen groups can use to
ensure good governance in the local level, and consequently, in the national government.

21
Malena, Carmen with Forster, Reiner, Singh, Janmejay. 2004. Social Accountability: An Introduction to
the Concept and Emerging Practice. In Social Development Papers. The World Bank.

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The following are some social accountability methods, along with examples of how these
methods have been practiced by various communities and citizens’ group in different parts
of the world: 22

a. Participatory Planning and Policy Formulation: Simply put, this method allows
citizens to take an active role in the government’s decision-making process.

b. Participatory Budget Analysis: Citizens, through this method, may look at the
impact and implications of the government’s budget allocation, and raise awareness
on budget-related issues.

c. Participatory Expenditure Tracking: This method enables citizens to monitor and

track where the government puts taxpayers’ money.

d. Citizens’ Surveys/Citizen Report Cards: This method essentially gathers feedback

of citizens which are aggregated and presented to the general public as a
report card on the performance of officials on a range of different issues.

e. Citizen’s Charters: This is an explicit statement of what a public agency is ready to

offer as its services and the corresponding rights and entitlements of the people, as
well as the remedies available to them should conflict arise. It outlines the roles and
responsibilities of service providers, and citizens measure the performance of the
former through the standards set by the charter.

f. Community Score Cards: This method is used to assess service delivery in a

participatory manner at the community level.

g. Grievance Mechanism: This is a tool for general stakeholder engagement process

and dialogue that can help in dispute prevention, dispute management, and dispute
resolution. It provides an alternative channel through which citizens can gain
recognition for legitimate concerns, engage in a process to secure acceptable
solutions, and share in the ownership of that process with the government.

Social accountability, as seen from the various experiences of citizens who have practiced
its methods, undoubtedly gives tremendous benefits and positive changes to government
processes and practices. These methods are basically conducted and implemented by
citizens and citizen group. Social accountability and is accompanying methods can pave
the way for good governance in local governments, and consequently in the national
government.

VII) GOOD GOVERNANCE, SOCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY AND

DECENTRALIZATION
The roots of good governance, decentralisation and social accountability are derived from
the aspirations for human development and the core goals of promoting poverty reduction
and effective and sustainable development through citizens’ participation in governance.23
22
Misra, Vivrek. 2005. Framework for Government Accountability. CGG

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Good governance in government is a must if we are to hope for a better future for all.
However, it is a value not always present; often it must be demanded from officials. Social
accountability is one way citizen groups can demand good governance from their officials,
and also to practice good governance as well as they also play a significant role in making
government work.

Improved governance will require not only strengthened central and local governments but
also the involvement
of other actors from
civil society
organizations and the
private sector in
partnerships with
government at all
levels through social
accountability.
Citizens and the
government are the
most important
players of social
accountability. The
government has the
duty to facilitate access to all information while the citizens must assert their right to
participate in governance. This means citizens must organize themselves to be able to
engage in this kind of participation.

For social accountability mechanisms to be effective on the long run, it needs to be

institutionalized and linked to existing governance structures and service delivery systems.
Effectiveness of service delivery at the local level is highly enhanced and can only be
sustained if certain conditions are met by the decentralized system of governance. These
conditions include a range of parameters including institutional structures, resources, skills
and capacities both at the central and local levels, participation, partnerships as well as
local leadership among others. Through decentralization of governance, civic engagement
for social accountability can be more focused and its impact easily felt.

23
Robertson Work, “The Role of Participation and Partnership in Decentralised Governance: A Brief
Synthesis of Policy Lessons and Recommendations of Nine Country Case Studies on Service Delivery for the
Poor, (UNDP New York).

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References

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Malena, Carmen with Forster, Reiner, Singh, Janmejay. 2004. Social Accountability: An Introduction to the
Concept and Emerging Practice. In Social Development Papers. The World Bank.

Malena, Carmen with Forster, Reiner, Singh, Janmejay. 2004. Social Accountability: An Introduction to the
Concept and Emerging Practice. In Social Development Papers. The World Bank.

Misra, Vivrek. 2005. Framework for Government Accountability. CGG

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