1 Applications of Differentiation

1.1 Maximum and minimum values of functions

Definition 1 Let f : A ⊂ R → R and let x0 ∈ A. We say that x0 is a:

i) local minimum point for f if for some ε > 0 we have

f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) , x ∈ A ∩ (x0 − ε, x0 + ε) (1)

ii) local maximum point for f if for some ε > 0 we have

f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) , x ∈ A ∩ (x0 − ε, x0 + ε) (2)

iii) local extremum point for f if x0 is either a local minimum or a local maximum point for f .
iv) If the above inequalities hold for any x ∈ A, then x0 is called an absolute minimum / maximum /
extremum point for f .

Remark 2 a) “for all x near x0 ” means for all x in and interval containing x0 (i.e. for all x ∈ (x0 − ε, x0 + ε)∩A,
for some ε > 0).
b) If the above inequalities are strict (for x 6= x0 ) we say that x0 is a strict local minimum / local
maximum / local extremum point for f .
c) if x0 is a local/absolute maximum/minimum point of f , then f (x0 ) is called local/absolute maxi-
mum/minimum value of f .

Example 1 Consider the function f : [−2, 3] → R having the graph below. We see that x = −2, x = −0, 5 and
x = 2 are relative minimum points of f , x = −1, 5, x = 1 and x = 3 are relative maximum points of f , x = 3 is the
absolute minimum point for f and x = 3 is the absolute maximum point for f .

y = f (x)

−0, 5 2
−2 −1, 5 1 3 x

Figure 1: The relative extremum points of the function f : [−2, 3] → R.

Exercise 1 Indicate the absolute/local extrema (maxima or minima) of the given functions.
a) f (x) = cos x b) f (x) = x2 c) f (x) = x3 d) f : [−1, 4] → R, f (x) = 3x4 − 16x3 + 18x2

Theorem 3 (Extreme value theorem - Weierstrass’s theorem) If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b],
then f attains its absolute maximum and absolute maximum values in [a, b] (i.e. there are points x0 , x1 ∈ [a, b]
such that f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (x1 ) for all x ∈ [a, b]).

Remark 4 In other words, the theorem says that the function has at least one absolute minimum and minimum
point in [a, b] (there could be more!).

Remark 5 Without the hypothesis that f is continuous, or that the interval [a, b] is closed, the theorem might be
false. Draw some examples so show it!

Theorem 6 (Fermat’s theorem) If f : A ⊂ R → R has a local extremum at an interior point x0 of A, and if

f 0 (x0 ) exists, then f 0 (x0 ) = 0.

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Proof. Under the hypotheses, f must have a horizontal tangent at x0 , so its slope m = f 0 (x0 ) = 0.

Example 2 Consider the function f : [1, 2] → R defined by f (x) = x. Note that x0 = 1 is a local minimum point
for f and x0 = 2 is a local maximum point for f , but f 0 (x) = 1 never vanishes. Does this contradict Fermat’s
theorem?

Remark 7 The converse of Fermat’s theorem is not true: it is possible that f 0 (x0 ) = 0 and x0 is not a local
extremum of f . For example, if f (x) = x3 and x0 = 0, we have f 0 (0) = 0, but x0 = 0 is not a local maximum or a
local minimum!

Definition 8 A point x0 in the domain of f is called a critical point if f 0 (x0 ) does not exist or if f 0 (x0 ) = 0.

Remark 9 We can rephrase Fermat’s theorem by saying that if f has a local extremum at an interior point x0 of
the domain, then x0 is a critical point (“interior local extrema are among critical points”).
To find the absolute extrema of a function f on a closed interval [a, b], we first find the critical points of f in
[a, b], Next, we evaluate f at the critical points, and also at a and b (why?). The largest/smallest value gives the
absolute maximum/minimum value of f on [a, b].

Exercise 2 Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of the function f : − 12 , 4 → R, f (x) =
 

x3 − 3x2 + 1.

1.2 The mean value theorem

Theorem 10 (Rolle’s theorem) If f : [a, b] → R is continuous on [a, b], differentiable on (a, b), and f (a) = f (b),
then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.

Proof. Since f is continuous on [a, b], by Weierstrass’s theorem there exist xm , xM ∈ [a, b] such that

f (xm ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (xM ) , x ∈ [a, b] .

If f (xm ) = f (xM ) then f is constant on [a, b], so f 0 is identically zero on [a, b], and we can choose any c ∈ (a, b)
in this case.
If f (xm ) 6= f (xM ), then xm , xM cannot be both endpoints of [a, b] (since f (a) = f (b)). Therefore at least
one of xm or xM is an interior point of [a, b], say xm is an interior point of [a, b].
By Fermat’s theorem it follows that f 0 (xm ) = 0, so we can choose c = xm ∈ (a, b) and conclude the proof.

Example 3 The position function of a moving object is given by f (t), and we assume that f is continuous on [a, b],
differentiable on (a, b). If f (a) = f (b) (the object is in the same position at times t = a and t = b), then Rolle’s
theorem shows that there is a time c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0 (its velocity at time t = c was zero). Compare with
the situation of a ball thrown upward.

Example 4 Show that the equation x3 + x − 1 = 0 has exactly one real root (Hint: IVT shows there is at least
one root, Rolle’s theorem can help you to show that there cannot be more that one root).

A generalization of Rolle’s theorem is contained in the following.

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Theorem 11 (Mean value theorem - Lagrange’s theorem) If f : [a, b] → R is continuous on [a, b] and dif-
ferentiable on (a, b), then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = . (3)
b−a
f (b) − f (a)
Proof. Apply Rolle’s theorem to the function F : [a, b] → R defined by F (x) = f (x) − (x − a) .
b−a
Remark 12 Geometrically, the theorem shows that there is point c ∈ (a, b) where the tangent is parallel to the line
through the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)).
Another interpretation of the theorem is that the average speed (if we think f (t) being the position function)
equals the instantaneous speed at some point.

From Lagrange’s theorem, we obtain the following useful test in the study of functions.

Proposition 13 (Increasing/decreasing test) If f is differentiable (a, b), then

i) If f 0 (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ (a, b) then f is increasing on (a, b);

ii) If f 0 (x) ≤ 0 for x ∈ (a, b) then f is decreasing on (a, b).
iii) If f 0 (x) = 0 for x ∈ (a, b) then f is constant on (a, b).

Example 5 Consider the function f (x) = x3 .

f is continuous and differentiable on R, and f 0 (x) = 3x2 ≥ 0 for any x ∈ R.
By the previous proposition it follows that the function f (x) = x3 is increasing on R (it is in fact strictly
increasing).

Remark 14 As a corollary of part iii) of the above proposition we have: if f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) for x ∈ (a, b), then f = g
on (a, b).
What can you conclude if f 0 (x) ≶ g 0 (x) for x ∈ (a, b) (and f (a) ≶ g (a))?

Exercise 3 Consider the function f : R∗ → R, f (x) = x

|x| . We have f 0 (x) = 0 for all x 6= 0, but f is not constant
on R∗ . Does this contradict the above proposition?

1.3 L’Hôpital’s rule

To prove l’Hôpital’s rule, we need the following generalization of Rolle’s and Lagrange’s theorems.

Theorem 15 (Cauchy’s theorem) Let f, g : [a, b] → R and assume that f and g are continuous on [a, b], diffe-
rentiable on (a, b) and g 0 (x) 6= 0 for x ∈ (a, b).
Then g (b) − g (a) 6= 0 and there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that

f 0 (c) f (b) − f (a)

= . (4)
g 0 (c) g (b) − g (a)

f (b) − f (a)
Proof. Apply Rolle’s theorem to the function F (x) = f (x) − (g (x) − g (a)), x ∈ [a, b].
g (b) − g (a)
We can now prove l’Hôpital’s rule (which helps us to deal with the case “ 00 ” when computing limits).

Theorem 16 (L’Hôpital’s rule) Let f, g : [a, b] → R and x0 ∈ [a, b]. If f and g are continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b) − {x0 }, g 0 (x) 6= 0 for x ∈ (a, b) − {x0 } and f (x0 ) = g (x0 ) = 0, then

f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 , (5)
x→x0 g (x) x→x0 g (x)

provided the last limit exists.

f (x) f (x) − f (x0 ) f 0 (c)

Proof. Use Cauchy’s theorem: lim = lim = lim 0 .
x→x0 g (x) x→x0 g (x) − g(x0 ) c→x0 g (c)

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Remark 17 (Extensions’s of L’Hôpital’s rule) L’Hôpital’s rule also holds

• for sided limits (left / right limits at a point).

• in the case when x0 = ±∞.

±∞
• for limits of the form ±∞ .

Example 6 Compute the limit

1 + x − ex
lim .
x→0 x2
The limit is of the type 00 and the functions involved satisfy the hypotheses of L’Hôpital’s rule above (check!).
Using l’Hopital’s rule, we obtain
0
1 + x − ex l 0 H (1 + x − ex ) 1 − ex
lim = lim 0 = lim .
x→0 x2 x→0 (x2 ) x→0 2x

The limit is again of the type 00 , and applying L’Hôpital’s rule again, we obtain
0
1 + x − ex 1 − ex l 0 H (1 − ex ) −ex 1
lim 2
= lim = lim 0 = lim =− .
x→0 x x→0 2x x→0 (2x) x→0 2 2

Remark: when applying L’Hôpital’s rule, it is essential to check that the limit “on the right” exists, otherwise
applying L’Hôpital’s rule may lead to erroneous conclusions, as shown in the example below.
x + sin x
Example 7 Compute limit lim .
x→∞ x
It is not difficult to see that
x−1 x + sin x x+1
≤ ≤ , x > 0,
x x x
and therefore
x−1 x + sin x x+1
1 = lim ≤ lim ≤ lim = 1,
x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ x
which shows that
x + sin x
lim = 1.
x
x→∞

Applying incorrectly L’Hôpital’s rule we obtain

0
x + sin x (x + sin x) 1 + cos x
lim = lim 0 = lim = lim (1 + cos x) − DNE,
x→∞ x x→∞ (x) x→∞ 1 x→∞

which “shows” that the given limit does not exist (we proved above that the limit is in fact 1).

Exercise 4 Find the indicatedx limits.

ln x e ln x tan x − x sin x
a) lim b) lim 2 c) lim √ d) lim e) lim−
x→1 x − 1 x→∞ x x→∞ 3
x x→0 x3 x→π 1 − cos x
∞
Sometimes, l’Hôpital’s rule cannot be used immediately (not 00 or ∞ ), but a little algebra can help. Useful
a
tricks: a product a · b can be written as a fraction 1 ; to get rid of exponents, take logarithms (compute ln of the
b
given limit).
cot x
Exercise 5 a) lim x ln x b) lim (sec x − tan x) c) lim (1 + sin (4x)) d) lim xx .
x→0+ x→(π/2)− x→0+ x→0+

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1.4 Derivatives of inverse functions and logarithmic differentiation
Suppose that f is a bijective function with inverse function f −1 . It can be shown that if f is continuous on
an interval, then so is f −1 . Moreover, if f is differentiable at x0 and f 0 (x0 ) 6= 0, then f −1 is differentiable at
y0 = f (x0 ), and we have

0 1
f −1 (y0 ) = 0 .
f (x0 )

Remark 18 To help you remember the above, just write f −1 (f (x)) = x and differentiate (use chain rule).
d
Example 8 Find the derivative dx (ex ).
The natural logarithm ln x : (0, ∞) → R is a bijective function and its inverse is ex : R → (0, ∞). We have

ln (ex ) = x,
d
and differentiating (recall that dx (ln x) = x1 ) we have

1 d x
· (e ) = 1,
ex dx
d
or dx(ex ) = ex .
d
The same idea can be used to find dx (ax ):

ln (ax ) = x ln a,

and differentiating we have

1 d x
· (a ) = ln a,
ax dx
d
or dx (ax ) = ax ln a.

Exercise 6 Establish the following differentiation formulae.

d 1 d 1 d 1
a) dx (arcsin x) = √1−x 2
b) dx (arccos x) = − √1−x 2
c) dx (arctan x) = 1+x2 .

The idea in the previous example can be used to compute derivatives of “complicated” functions (prod-
ucts/fractions). Take the logarithms of both sides, then differentiate (this is called logarithmic differentiation).
3/4
√
2
Example 9 Differentiate y = x (3x+2)
x +1
5 .
We will use logarithmic differentiation:
3 1
ln x + ln x2 + 1 − 5 ln (3x + 2) ,


ln y =
4 2
and differentiating we have
1 0 3 1 1 2x 3
·y = + −5
y 4 x 2 x2 + 1 3x + 2
or √
x3/4 x2 + 1 3
   
0 3 x 15 x 15
y =y + 2 − = 5 + − .
4x x + 1 3x + 2 (3x + 2) 4x x2 + 1 3x + 2

Exercise 7 Use logarithmic differentiation to help you find the derivatives of the given functions.
4
(x3 +1) sin2 x
4
q

2 4
4 (x−5)3
a) y = x2 + 2 x +4 b) y = (x+1)
(x−3)8
c) y = xx−1
4 +1 d) y = x1/3
.

Exercise 8 Use logarithmic differentiation to establish the following differentiation formula

d  g(x)

g(x)−1 g(x)
f (x) = g (x) f (x) · f 0 (x) + f (x) ln f (x) · g 0 (x) .
dx
√
x
Exercise 9 Differentiate y = x .

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1.5 Derivatives and shapes of graphs
The role of the first derivative in the study of the graph of a function is contained in the following.
a) f 0 ≥ 0 on an (open) interval, then f is increasing on that interval;
b) f 0 ≤ 0 on an (open) interval, then f is decreasing on that interval;
c) f 0 = 0 on an (open) interval, then f is constant on that interval.
Exercise 10 Find the intervals on which f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 12x2 + 5 is increasing/decreasing.
The first derivative is also helpfull in deciding if a critical point is a local maximum / local minimum / neither
of them.
Proposition 19 (First derivative test) If c is a critical point of a continuous function f , then
a) if f 0 changes sign from positive to negative at c, then c is a local maximum point;
b) if f 0 changes sign from negative to positive at c, then c is a local minimum point;
c) if f 0 doesn’t change sign at c, then c is not a local extremum point of f .
Exercise 11 Find the local maximum and local minimum points of the function in the previous exercise.
Definition 20 We say that a function is concave upward on an interval if its graph lies above its tangent lines
on that interval (“holds water”). If the graph lies below its tangent line on an interval (“doesn’t hold water”), we
say that the function is concave downward on that interval.
A point where a (continuous) function changes concavity is called an inflection point.

The role of the second derivative in studying the graph of a function is contained in the following.
a) f 00 ≥ 0 on an (open) interval, then f is concave upward on that interval;
b) f 00 ≤ 0 on an (open) interval, then f is concave downward on that interval.
Exercise 12 Sketch the graph of a function satisfying the following conditions:
a) f 0 (x) > 0 on (−∞, 1), f 0 (x) < 0 on (1, ∞)
b) f 00 (x) > 0 on (−∞, −2) ∪ (2, ∞), f 00 (x) < 0 on (−2, 2)
c) limx→−∞ f (x) = −2, limx→∞ f (x) = 0.
The second derivative is also helpfull in deciding if a critical point is a local maximum / local minimum / neither
of them.
Proposition 21 (Second derivative test) If c is a critical point of a continuous function f , and f 00 is continuous
near c, then
a) if f 00 (c) > 0, then c is a local minimum point;
b) if f 00 (c) < 0, then c is a local maximum point.
Remark 22 When f 00 (c) = 0 the above test is inconclusive (use the first derivative test).
Exercise 13 Consider the function f (x) = x4 − 4x3 . Where is the function concave upward/downward? Where is
the function increasing/decreasing? What are the inflection points? What are the maxima/minima of the function?
Use this information to help you sketch the graph.
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Exercise 14 Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = x2/3 (6 − x) .

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1.6 Curve sketching
To sketch the graph of a function f “by hand”, use the following steps.

A. Domain (the set of values where f is defined)

B. Intercepts (the points where the graph of f intersects the axes)
C. Symmetry (odd, even, or periodic function)
If f is odd (f (−x) = −f (x) for x in the domain of f ), then the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the y-axis
If f is even (f (−x) = f (x) for x in the domain of f ), then the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the origin
If f is periodic with period T > 0 (f (x + T ) = f (x) for x in the domain of f ), then the graph of f “repeats” on
each interval of length T .
D. Asymptotes (horizontal, vertical, or oblique)
x = a is a vertical asymptote if limx%a f (x) = ±∞ or limx&a f (x)
y = b is a horizontal asymptote at ±∞ if limx→±∞ f (x) = b
f (x)
y = mx + b is a oblique asymptote at ±∞ if limx→±∞ x = m and limx→±∞ (f (x) − mx) = b
E. First derivative (increasing/decreasing, extremum points)
f 0 > 0 (< 0) tells us intervals where f increases (decreases)
critical points (points where f 0 = 0 or f 0 DNE) can be classified into relative maximum/minimum/neither using
one of the tests we learned.
F. Second derivative (concave upward/downward, inflection points)
f 00 > 0 (< 0) tells us intervals where f is concave upward (downward)
To summarize the study, make a table containing the signs of f 0 and f 00 , and f . Finally use all the information
above to draw the graph of f .

Exercise 15 Sketch the graphs of the given functions.

2 2
a) f (x) = x2x−1 b) f (x) = √xx+1 c) f (x) = cos x
2+sin x

1.7 Optimization problems

Optimization problems are problems in which you are asked to find the extremum (maximum or minimum) of a
certain quantity. To do this, use the steps below.

A. Read the problem carefully (draw a picture to help you understand it better)
B. Introduce the notation (pay attention to the measurement units, and to the eventual conditions imposed in the
problem)
C. Write the quantity to be optimized as a function of one variable (pay attention to the domain of the function)
D. Use the first derivative to help you find the extremum of function. Finally, answer the question of the problem.

Exercise 16 A farmer has 2400 feet of fencing and wants to fence off a rectangular field that borders a straight
river. He needs no fence along the river. What are the dimensions of the field that has the largest area?

Exercise 17 A cylindrical can is to be made to hold 1 liter of oil. Find the dimensions that will minimize the cost
of the metal to manufacture the can.

Exercise 18 Find the point on the parabola y 2 = 2x that is closest to the point (1, 4).

Exercise 19 Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a semicircle of radius r.