The document discusses various types of cellular adaptations in response to stimuli, including changes in cell size, number, and differentiation. It describes the cell cycle phases (interphase consisting of G1, S, G2 phases and the M phase involving mitosis and cytokinesis). Proliferation can occur through hyperplasia, with an increase in cell number, or hypertrophy, with an increase in cell size. Atrophy is a reduction in cell or tissue size. Metaplasia is when one mature cell type is replaced by another in response to environmental stresses.
The document discusses various types of cellular adaptations in response to stimuli, including changes in cell size, number, and differentiation. It describes the cell cycle phases (interphase consisting of G1, S, G2 phases and the M phase involving mitosis and cytokinesis). Proliferation can occur through hyperplasia, with an increase in cell number, or hypertrophy, with an increase in cell size. Atrophy is a reduction in cell or tissue size. Metaplasia is when one mature cell type is replaced by another in response to environmental stresses.
The document discusses various types of cellular adaptations in response to stimuli, including changes in cell size, number, and differentiation. It describes the cell cycle phases (interphase consisting of G1, S, G2 phases and the M phase involving mitosis and cytokinesis). Proliferation can occur through hyperplasia, with an increase in cell number, or hypertrophy, with an increase in cell size. Atrophy is a reduction in cell or tissue size. Metaplasia is when one mature cell type is replaced by another in response to environmental stresses.
The document discusses various types of cellular adaptations in response to stimuli, including changes in cell size, number, and differentiation. It describes the cell cycle phases (interphase consisting of G1, S, G2 phases and the M phase involving mitosis and cytokinesis). Proliferation can occur through hyperplasia, with an increase in cell number, or hypertrophy, with an increase in cell size. Atrophy is a reduction in cell or tissue size. Metaplasia is when one mature cell type is replaced by another in response to environmental stresses.
Al-Shammari The cell cycle The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of distinct phases The most dramatic events are nuclear division (mitosis) and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) This is the M phase The rest of the cell cycle is called interphase which is, deceptively, uneventful During interphase the cell replicates its DNA, transcribes genes, synthesises proteins and grows in mass Phases of the cell cycle S phase – DNA replicates M phase – nucleus divides (mitosis) and cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis) G1 phase – gap between M and S phase G2 phase – between S and M phase Cellular adaptations of growth and differentiation Cells must respond to a variety of stimuli that may be hormonal, paracrine or through direct cell contact These stimuli may arise under physiological or pathological conditions The way that cells adapt in terms of growth and differentiation depends in part on their ability to divide Growth and differentiation responses Change in size of cells Atrophy: Reduction in the size of cells Hypertrophy: Increase in the size of cells Change in number of cells Involution: Decrease in the number of cells Hyperplasia: Increase in the number of cells Change in differentiation of cells
Metaplasia: Stable change to another cell type Physiological adaptations
They represent response of cells to normal
stimulation by hormones or endogenous chemical substances e.g. a. enlargement of the breast and induction of lactation by pregnancy. b. replacement of labile tissues, e.g. skin, bone marrow c. cyclic as endometrium. Pathological adaptations
adaptations occurring as a result of certain
stimuli which are not lethal, i.e. a state intermediate between normal unstressed cells and injured overstressed ones. Atrophy Definition Reduction of the size of an organ after reaching its normal adult size. As a result of decrease in both the number and size of the cells. Often associated with fibrosis. May be physiological or pathological Physiological atrophy Involution: A form of physiologic atrophy. Return to normal size after hyperplasia and hypertrophy, if the causative stimuli are removed and equilibrium returns back.. Eg uterus after labour. atrophy of the ovary after menopause senile atrophy of geriatrics. b- Pressure atrophy: due to long continued pressure on a tissue leading to decrease in its blood supply with atrophy of its cells e.g. amyloidosis of the liver in which the extracellular deposition of amyloid substance leads to pressure atrophy of hepatocytes. c-Neuropathic atrophy: e.g. when a motor nerve supplying a muscle is affected as in poliomyelitis d- Decreased work load: e.g. immobilized limb e- Starvation: leading to generalized atrophy. The atrophic cells in all cases, are still surviving cells, but with diminished function. Atrophy
When the mass of functioning cells in a tissue
becomes reduced, the tissue is said to have undergone atrophy.
1. There are two mechanisms of reduction:
Decrease in the size and volume of individual cells, associated with reduction in cellular metabolism and reduced synthesis of structural proteins. Physical reduction in the size of established cells is achieved through an increase in the catabolism of structural proteins by autophagy, channelling redundant structural elements into the lysosomal system. 2. Death of established cells in an organ or tissue, causing a reduction in the number of functioning cells. There is activation of specific genes, which act to bring about cellular dissolution. One of the morphological manifestations of this type of cell death is termed apoptosis. Involution is a form of physiological organ atrophy involving apoptosis of cells. Increased Growth: Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia Hyperplasia and hypertrophy are common tissue responses • May be physiological (e.g. breast enlargement in pregnancy) or pathological (e.g. prostatic enlargement in elderly men) • Hypertrophy: increase in cell size without cell division • Hyperplasia: increase in cell number by mitosis Hyperplasia Definition: It is an increase in the size of an organ or tissue due to increase in the number of constituent parenchymal cells. It may be physiological or pathological. Physiological hyperplasia
hormonal as in the female breast
during puberty and pregnancy compensatory as in hyperplasia of liver hepatocytes after partial hepatectomy due to increase in its functional demands. Pathological hyperplasia
Increased level of circulating hormones produce
hyperplasia in the target organs
e.g. a- hyperplasia of the endometrium
due to hyperestrinism
b-senile prostatic hyperplasia
due to increase in the level of androgen and estrogen. However, hyperplasia due to certain stimuli stops with removal of these stimuli and may serve a useful function. Hypertrophy Definition
It is an increase in the size of an organ or tissue due to
enlargement of individual cells without increase in the number of cells.
It usually occurs in organs in which proliferation and
mitosis are restricted e.g. skeletal muscle and heart muscles.
stenosis b- cardiac muscle hypertrophy in chronically hypertensive patients. Increased functional demand on a tissue can be met by increase in cell number (Hyperplasia), as well as by increase in cell size (Hypertrophy).
Certain organs or tissues may adapt to a disease
process by increasing functional cell mass. mechanisms of increase : 1. Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells in a tissue caused by increased cell division. As this type of change can only occur in tissues that have the capacity for cell division, hyperplasia is not an adaptive response seen in skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle or nerve cells, which are non-dividing cell populations. Hormonal influences are important in this growth response . 2. Hypertrophy is an increase in the size of existing cells, accompanied by increase in their functional capacity. Cell enlargement is brought about by increased synthesis of structural components, associated with accelerated activity of cellular metabolism and rises in levels of RNA and organelles required for protein synthesis. Hypertrophy is particularly seen as a response to increased demand in tissues composed of cells which are unable to divide (skeletal and cardiac muscle). Metaplasia Definition It is a reversible change in which an adult cell type (epithelial or mesenchymal) is replaced by another adult cell type of the same tissue. Metaplasia • Cells can adapt to change in environment by differentiation to a new, mature, stable type of cell which is better equipped to withstand an environmental stress. • Metaplasia is an acquired form of altered differentiation Epithelial squamous metaplasia
e.g. a- uterine endocervical glandular
epithelium due to chronic irritation b-transitional epithelium of urinary bladder, ureter or renal pelvis due to chronic irritation by bilharziasis or stones c-columnar epithelium of gall bladder due to chronic irritation by stones or inflammation
d-pseudostratified ciliated columnar respiratory epithelium due to chronic irritation by habitual cigarette smoking or in vitamin A deficiency. The adaptive metaplastic epithelium is better able to survive, but
important protective mechanisms (such as mucus secretion and ciliary
clearance of particulate matter in the respiratory epithelium) are lost.
If the influences that induce metaplastic transformation of the
epithelium are persistent, they may lead to cancer transformation in the
metaplastic epithelium, e.g. squamous metaplasia of transitional
epithelium of the urinary bladder by bilharziasis will lead to squamous
cell carcinoma. Mesenchymal cell metaplasia:
Myxomatous change of fibrous tissue.
Transformation of fibroblasts to osteoblasts or chondroblasts to produce bone or cartilage in soft tissues in foci of injury. It may represent an adaptive substitution of cells more sensitive to stress by other cell types better able to withstand the adverse environment.
Metaplasia is thought to arise by
genetic 'deprogramming" of epithelial stem cell or of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells in connective tissue. • Transformation of one mature differentiated cell type into another. • Reversible response to altered cellular environment. • Affects epithelial or mesenchymal cells. • May undergo further indirect transformation to neoplasia via dysplasia (e.g. squamous cell carcinoma associated with squamous metaplasia in bronchi). Examples of Metaplasia Original Tissue Stimulus Metaplastic Tissue Ciliated columnar Cigarette smoke Squamous epithelium epithelial of bronchial tree Transitional epithelium Trauma of bladder Squamous epithelium of bladder calculus Columnar epithelium in Trauma of calculus Squamous epithelium gland ducts Fibro-collagenous tissue Chronic trauma Bone (osseous) tissue Oesophageal squamous Gastric acid Columnar epithelium epithelium Columnar glandular Vitamin A deficiency Squamous epithelium epithelium Hypoplasia It is the decrease in size of an organ due to incomplete development in embryonic or fetal life e.g. kidney and uterus. Agenesis
Complete absence of an organ or a
part of an organ e.g. solitary kidney, in such case the other kidney is absent. Dysplasia A term used to describe disorderly but non- neoplastic proliferation.
It is a loss in the uniformity of individual cells as
well as in their architectural orientation Dysplasia Dysplasia is characterized by increased cell growth (e.g. more mitoses visible than normal), presence of atypical morphology (e.g. abnormally large nuclei), and altered differentiation (e.g. cellular immaturity) • May be caused by chronic physical or chemical injury • May be reversible only in early stages • Dysplastic lesions are often pre-neoplastic When dysplastic changes are mild they are often reversible by removal of the inciting cause (e.g. chronic irritation).
On the other hand, when dysplastic changes
are marked and involve the entire thickness of the epithelium, the lesion in this case is considered as pre-invasive neoplasm and is referred to as "carcinoma in situ". Dysplastic changes reveal pleomorphism,
hyperchromatism, abundant mitoses, and loss of
normal orientation. Dysplastic changes are mostly
seen in epithelial cells especially in the cervix uteri.
Neoplasia Neoplasia is characterized by abnormal, uncoordinated and excessive cell growth • Persists after initiating stimulus has been withdrawn • Associated with genetic alterations • Neoplastic cells influence behaviour of normal cells by the production of hormones and growth factors Summary Adapted Cell
Cellular adaptations to stress
1. Hyperplasia (more cells) 2. Hypertrophy (bigger cells) 3. Atrophy (smaller cells) 4. Metaplasia (different type of cells) Hypertrophy of uterus Photomicrograph of the trachea from a smoker. Note that the columnar ciliated epithelium has been replaced by squamous epithelium. Decreased Growth: Atrophy • Atrophy: decrease in size of an organ or cell • Organ atrophy may be due to reduction in cell size or number or both • May be mediated by apoptosis • Atrophy may be physiological (e.g. postmenopausal atrophy of uterus) • Pathological atrophy may be due to decreased function (e.g. an immobilised limb), loss of enervation, reduced blood or oxygen supply, nutritional impairment or hormonal insufficiency Metaplasia versus Dysplasia 1. Dysplasia is a pathological term used to refer to an irregularity that hinders cell maturation within a particular tissue whereas Metaplasia is the process of the reversible substitution of a distinct kind of cell with another mature cell of the similar distinct kind.
2. Dysplasia is cancerous whereas Metaplasia is non-cancerous.
3. Metaplasia can be stopped by removing the abnormal
stimulus, but Dysplasia is a non-reversible process.
