PRINCIPLES OF

INSTRUMENT FLIGHT
Flight Instrument Systems
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
Pitot-Static Instruments

Airspeed Indicator - Altimeter - VSI

 Pitot-Static Instruments

• PITOT Pressure • STATIC Pressure

• Impact, ram air • Ambient pressure
• Dynamic Pressure • Connected to:
• Connected ONLY – Airspeed (AI)
to: – Altimeter (ALT)
– Vertical Speed (VSI)
– AIRSPEED
INDICATOR
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
 Airspeed Indicator
• Airspeed
Indicator
–Uses the pitot
tube and the
static port
–Compares ram
air with static
air
 Airspeed Indicator
Measures pressure differential
 Types of Airspeed:acronym “ICE-T”
• Indicated airspeed
– Indication on airspeed indicator
– Use same indicated airspeed for take-off & landing
regardless of altitude or temperature
• Calibrated airspeed
– IAS corrected for installation and instrument errors
– Relative wind at high Angle Of Attack (slower airspeed)
does not meet pitot at same angle as at higher airspeeds
• Equivalent airspeed
– CAS corrected for compressibility
– >200 kts and >20,000 feet
– Compression of air causes abnormally high indication
• True airspeed
– actual speed through undisturbed air
– corrected for density changes due to altitude or temp.
– 2% rule: TAS increases approx. 2% per 1000 ft
A Mach Meter Measures the ratio of TRUE AIRSPEED to the speed of sound

GROUNDSPEED is TRUE AIRSPEED corrected for WIND

V-Speeds
 Altimeter
• Required for both VFR and IFR, but for
IFR it needs to be a sensitive altimeter.
– Adjustable for barometric pressure
• Main component
– Stack of sealed aneroid wafers which expand
and contract with changing static pressure.
 Altimeter
• Determines your altitude by comparing
static air pressure to sea-level pressure

• Types of altitude
– Indicated
– Pressure
– Density
– True
– Absolute
Altitude types are different because of reference point.
• Indicated altitude
– what you read when barometric pressure is set to
current altimeter setting
– IFR below 18,000’ MSL
• Pressure Altitude
– 29.92 in. Hg. / standard datum plane
– At or above 18,000’ MSL (flight levels)
• Density Altitude
– PA corrected for non-standard temp
– Determines aircraft performance
• True Altitude
– Only read under standard conditions
– Height above mean sea level (MSL)
• Absolute altitude
– actual height above earth’s surface
– AGL
International Standard Atmosphere

• ISA
– Standard Sea level Pressure 29.92 Hg.
• 1013.2 Mb.

– Standard temperature
• Sea Level 15 C (59 F)

• Standard Lapse rate 2 C per 1000

feet
 Altimeter Setting

• FROM HIGH TO LOW-LOOK OUT BELOW!

– A/c thinks you’re high at the lower pressure
– So you lower your nose to correct back to
desired indicated altitude
– But in fact, you’ve just decreased your true
altitude
– Need to reset to current altimeter setting!
 Altimeter Temperature Errors
INDICATED ALTITUDE 10,000 feet

TRUE ALT
TRUE ALTITUDE

10,000 IND ALT TRUE ALT

IND ALT
IND ALT
WARM

STANDARD
TRUE ALT

COLD
29.92 in.
 Altimeter Checks
• Verify reported altimeter setting
gives you airport elevation
–Acceptable within 75 feet of airport
elevation
• As you fly, check changing altimeter
settings from various reporting
facilities within 100 miles of your
position (91.121)
 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

• Trend
Information
• Rate
Information
 Rate and Trend Information
• 6 - 9 seconds of lag is common
before rate indication stabilizes
(RATE)
• But when a change does occur, you
know it right away (TREND)
• Invaluable pitch information:
– in steep turns
– gyroscopic AI fails
 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)
• Diaphragm
– static pressure is connected directly to the inside for
instantaneous changes
• Static pressure is connected indirectly to the case by a
“calibrated leak”/restricted orifice (small hole) which
prevents instantaneous recognition of pressure
change
• Senses a differential pressure change between the
static pressure going into the diaphragm and “leaking
out” of the calibrated leak; the rate at which these two
pressures equalize or change determines the
climb/descent rate displayed on instrument
• Calibrated leak causes a 6-9 second lag for
stabilization ( i.e. when leveling off)
 VSI Instrument Check
• Remember, it’s not required for IFR
• Before starting, check it’s “0”.
– After starting, propeller slipstream may
erraticize it
• If not “0”, make that the new level
flight indication
 Pitot-Static Instruments
System Blockage
Inaccurate
Airspeed Constant Zero Frozen
Indications Indication on VSI Altimeter

Static
Port

Pitot Tube

Blockage
 Pitot Tube Blockage
• Only AIRSPEED is affected
• Ram air inlet clogs, drain hole is free
– pressure inside bleeds off to static
and airspeed decreases until “0”!
• Ram air inlet and drain hole clogs
– pressure is trapped
– Indications: Acts as Altimeter
– 1) level: no change regardless of
power changes
– 2) climb: higher airspeed indication
– 3) descend: lower airspeed indication
 Static Line Blockage
• Airspeed will change, but it’ll be inaccurate
– above : lower than actual
– below : higher than actual
– OPPOSITE of acting as altimeter (how could it
act as altimeter if static is blocked?)
• Altimeter locks at present reading
• VSI stays at “0”
• Alternate source is a good idea!
 Alternate Static Pressure
• Usually inside the cockpit
• Lower pressure due to slipstream outside
– Airspeed will be faster
– Altimeter will be higher
– VSI will momentarily show a climb
• Could break the VSI glass (if no alt static)
– This is a last resort!
 MALFUNCTIONS / ICING

BLOCKED ASI ALT VSI

PITOT
READS 0 NO EFFECT NO EFFECT
TUBE

PITOT + ACTS LIKE

DRAIN AN NO EFFECT NO EFFECT
HOLE ALTIMETER
ACTS LIKE FREEZES
STATIC
A REVERSE (constant altitude READS 0
PORT indication)
ALTIMETER
 PRINCIPLES OF
INSTRUMENT FLIGHT

Flight Instrument Systems

Gyroscopic Instruments
Required Instruments for IFR Flight
All required for VFR Flight - plus:
 “GRABCARDD” 91.205 (d) & (e)
• G enerator or alternator
• R adios: Two-way Communication AND
navigation equipment appropriate to facilities used
• A ltimeter (adjustable)
• B all (slip & skid indicator)
• C lock
• A ttitude Indicator
• R ate of turn indicator
• D irectional gyro
• DME at & above FL 240
Equipment tests & inspections required for
IFR
• Airworthiness Directives (recurring/one-time)
• VOR (preceding 30 days)
• Inspections (Annual/100 hour if for hire)
• Altimeter (preceding 24 calendar months
• Transponder (preceding 24 calendar months)
• ELT (preceding 12 calendar months)
• Static system (preceding 24 calendar mo.)
 Glass-panel cockpits are
replacing the more familiar
“round dial” cockpits.
 They’re here!

G1000 Primary Flight Display (PFD)

Bezel Mounted Controls
Attitude Nav/Com Tuning

Altitude
Airspeed and
Vertical
Speed

Map Inset
FMS Controls

HSI
Compare and Contrast
Airspeed Altitude

Attitude Vertical Speed

DG/HSI
Where are the needle and ball?
Skid and Slip

Turn Rate
 GMU 44
GDU 1040 #1 GMA GDU 1040 #2 Magnetometer
(PFD) 1347 (MFD)
Left Wing
Cockpit

TBA

GEA 71 GRS 77
Engine GDL 69A AHRS GIA 63 #1 GIA 63 #2 GTX 33
GDC 74A Airframe XM Sat COM1 COM2 Mode S
ADC Interface WxWorx NAV1 NAV2 XPDR
GPS 1 GPS 2 w/ TIS
Behind MFD Aft Avionics Bay
G1000 Block Diagram
 G1000 Multi-Function Display (MFD)

Same controls as on PFD, and

Engine and Systems Instruments automatically reverts to PFD image if PFD
with detailed cylinder information and should fail (Reversionary Mode)
lean assist

Can Display:
•Topographic Data
•Terrain
•Traffic
Autopilot
Not yet
available in
C172S

FMS
Controls
 Gyroscopic Flight Instruments

Attitude Indicator - Heading Indicator - Turn Coordinator

 Flight Instrument Systems
• Vacuum System
–Attitude Indicator &
–Heading Indicator
• Electrical System
–Turn Coordinator
–Serves as backup in case of
vacuum system failure
 VACUUM SYSTEM
Vacuum System
Gyroscopic Principles
•Rigidity in Space
•Precession
 Rigidity in Space
• A wheel spinning rapidly tends to
remain fixed in the plane in which it
is spinning.
• Gimbals allows the gyro to rotate
freely in any plane
• Gives us a center of reference that
doesn’t change with aircraft attitude
 Gyro stays fixed as
aircraft moves around it
 Precession
• Apply a force on a spinning gyro, its effect will
be felt at the 90 degree position in the plane of
rotation.
Caused by friction:
-in gimbals
-in bearings
Results in:
-1) slow drifting in
HI and
-2) occasional small
errors in AI
 Attitude Indicator

• Shows aircraft
pitch and bank
attitude
• Does NOT
show if the
aircraft is
turning,
climbing or
descending
ATTITUDE INDICATOR
 How an AI Works
• Principle of operation:
-RIGIDITY IN SPACE
• Gyro spins in horizontal plane on a
vertical axis
• Mounted on dual gimbals so that
aircraft can pitch and roll around gyro
• Gyro stays level with natural horizon
– there is a self-erecting mechanism actuated by the
force of gravity on “pendulous vanes” to keep it
level*(see next slide)
 The self-erecting mechanism in the
gyroscopic attitude indicator

• The force of gravity acting on the “pendulous vanes”

allows the gyro to align itself with the natural horizon
 Pendulous Vanes
• Sole purpose is to keep the gyro ERECT.
• Air exits the gyro assembly through 4
ports at right angles near the base.
• Vanes open and close these ports by the
swinging effect like a pendulum
responding to gravity.
• Results in differential thrust causing
precession forces which right the gyro to
desired plane
 Turns and G forces
• The pendulous vanes operate
asymmetrically under:
– Load
– Centrifugal force
• Results in a variety of typical
gyroscopic precession errors
• Error usually maxes out after 180° turn
- cancels after 360° turn
Acceleration / Deceleration Errors
• Example - accelerate
– Horizon bar moves down
– Incorrectly indicates a climb
– ‘Confirmed’ by pilot’s somatogravic illusion
– Response (“get the nose down”)
– Danger potential at takeoff or missed
approach when required obstacle climb
angle isn’t sufficient
 Tumbling Gyros
• Older AI indicators can tumble.
• Gimbals reach their limits resulting in gyros
precessing rapidly.
• Tumbles away from desired plane of rotation
• Exceeding 100° bank or 60° pitch (on older
models)
• Caging devices were necessary for acrobatic
flight to prevent tumbling
• Newer Attitude Indicators do not have the
same limits so no caging
 Heading Indicator
• Indicates
heading based
on a 360
degree azimuth

• Must regularly
be reset to
agree with the
magnetic
compass
 How An HI Works
• Vacuum powered
• Gyro spins on vertical plane
• Senses rotation about the vertical
axis
• Free vs. Slaved gyros
– free, must align with magnetic
compass
– slaved, automatic north-seeking
Heading Indicator
 HI Errors
• Precession: Check HI every 15
minutes with mag compass
• Airplane does more than yaw, so 2
gimbals needed for free rotation.
• Can also tumble
 TURN COORDINATOR
• Operates on principle
of gyroscopic
precession
-Electrically Driven
Still usable after a
vacuum failure
-Provides direction of
turn, rate of turn, rate
of roll, and QUALITY
of turn (coordinated use
of aileron and rudder)
 Two Types
• Turn-and-Slip Indicator
– Only shows rate of turn
– Gyro rotates in vertical plane along a/c
longitudinal axis
• Turn Coordinator
– Indicates rate of turn AND rate of roll
- Gyro is canted 30 degrees to allow for
measuring the roll and yaw of the
airplane
• Both instruments give indirect indication
of bank
 Slip and Skid
Slip
• rate of turn is too slow
for AOB
• ball inside turn
-(HCL is too great)
• Skid
• rate of turn is too
great for AOB
• ball outside turn
-(too much Centrifugal
force)
Slip Skid Coordinated
 SRT
• Standard rate turn is 3°/sec
• Angle Of Bank increases with TAS
• Standard Rate AOB rule of thumb:
(TAS/10) + 5 ex:150/10 + 5=20
 TC Checks
• Listen for unusual noise before starting
engine
• Look for red, warning, or OFF flags
• Ammeter after start for positive charging
rate
• Inclinometer ball - outside of turn
• Turn needle - with turn
 Magnetic Compass
Self contained

Direction seeking

•Subject to many Compass Errors

 Magnetic Compass Errors
• Variation
• Deviation
• Magnetic Dip
• Oscillation
• Northerly Turning Error These are
both due to
• Acceleration Magnetic Dip
 Magnetic Variation
Difference between True North & Magnetic North
Isogonic lines: equal variation Agonic line: 0 variation
 Deviation
• Metals and magnetic fields in the
airplane interfere with north-seeking
ability
• Compensating magnets eliminate some
of the error.
• Swinging the compass adjusts them.
• Leftover error is handled through a
compass correction card for each
individual airplane.
 Magnetic Dip
“Northerly Turning” and “Acceleration”
errors are due to magnetic dip

• Exists because
compass magnet
tries to point 3
dimensionally
toward the earth’s
magnetic north
pole deep inside
the earth.
When initiating a turn FROM North
or South Heading
•North
•Opposite
•South
•Exaggerate
 NORTHERLY TURNING ERRORS
“North Opposite” “South Exaggerate”
Compass initially shows turn Shows turn in proper direction
in opposite direction but compass card moves
faster than actual rate of turn
Acceleration Errors (East or West)
“ANDS”
•Accelerate
•North
•Decelerate
•South
Acceleration Errors on East/ West Headings
 Oscillation
• Erratic movement of the
magnetic compass card
• Caused by turbulence or
rough control movement