I.

NOISE
What is noise?
Noise can be one of the most irritating disturbances in the contemporary office. By
planning for acoustic solutions and quiet spaces, you can reduce stress and improve
concentration. For example, The British Council of Offices has calculated that better
acoustics could increase productivity of UK companies by two percent!
Noise is any annoying, disturbing or unwanted sound.
Noise can have many effects on people. It can:
 irritate people;
 interfere with verbal communication;
 reduce working efficiency;
 disturb sleep;
 damage hearing.
Sounds can be interpreted as music, a story, a joke, a
warning or an endless array of other possible signals.
Sound can often bring us great pleasure, but it can also
annoy us, or those around us. People have varying
tolerance levels for sounds. If the sound goes beyond
the tolerance level, it is classified as noise, but this
depends on the characteristics of the particular person as well as the sound. For example,
a group of people might enjoy playing loud rap music at 3a.m. The same sounds might
not be appreciated by their neighbours! Likewise, a crying baby needs to able to make its
parents hear when it requires feeding – other members of the family might be annoyed by
the same sounds.
Where does noise come from? Almost every aspect of modern life generates noise –
industrial processes, construction, office work and even home and leisure activities.
Industrial production and construction are rapidly increasing in many countries and this
brings with it an increase in industrial or 'occupational' noise. If we expose ourselves to
extreme noise levels, then damage to our hearing can easily occur. Ultimately this could
lead to severe deafness and to exclusion and isolation from society. Therefore, it is
essential that we take good care of our hearing.

Characteristics of noise
Noise or sound is created by alternate compression and decompression of particles of
the air. This causes the air pressure to fall and rise in the form of waves. Frequency
(pitch) and intensity (loudness) are the two characteristics of sound.
Frequency

Frequency is the number of times that the air is compressed and decompressed in a second, and
is measured in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz). Low frequency produces a low pitched, bass
sound. High frequency produces a high pitched, whistle sound. Human ears respond to
frequencies between 20Hz and 20,000Hz. The human voice produces frequencies between
500Hz and 2,000Hz. Below 20Hz and above 20,000 Hz sound cannot be heard but it can still be
harmful. The ear is most sensitive to sounds between 1000 and 4000Hz.

The infra-sounds and the ultra-sounds, although not heard by humans, produce feelings of
nausea, giddiness and headache in people exposed to them. Infra-sounds are the most subtle and
can occur in aeroplanes and other vehicles. Noise from heavy road vehicles can penetrate the
walls of houses.

Intensity 

Intensity is the amount of sound energy reaching the eardrum, and is measured in decibels (dB).
Zero decibels is the faintest sound that the average person can hear, and the loudest sound may
be more than a million times this level. This is because the intensity of sound does not rise
gradually - each increase of 10 decibels means that the intensity increases 10 times.  For
example, a 10 decibel sound is 10 times louder than a 1 decibel sound; a 20 decibel sound is 100
times louder than a 1 decibel sound (10x10); 30 decibels are 1000 times louder (10x10x10), and
so on. The ear responds to intensities from 0 to 140dB. Discomfort is felt at 120dB, and near
140dB, pain is felt with possible rupture and permanent damage to the eardrum. 

Some noise intensity measurements are given in a measure called 'dB(A)' which takes into
account the frequency sensitivity of the ear. dB(A) measurements are obtained on a noise meter
which weights the different frequency components. For example, the noise intensity for a
circular saw, and the noise intensity inside a bus have the same value when expressed in dB. But
the noise from a circular saw contains a greater proportion of high frequencies, and is more
annoying than the noise inside a bus. Therefore, the circular saw has a higher dB(A) value.

European law now requires manufacturers of tools and appliances to state the noise emission
levels of their products. This allows customers to choose quieter machines and gives the
manufacturers some incentive to create quiet designs.

Some examples of noise levels are shown below.

Anatomy of hearing
Hearing is the function of the auditory system, which is
organised to detect several aspects of sound, including
pitch, loudness and direction.

A sensation of hearing is caused when sound waves

pass through the ear passage, resulting in the vibration
of the eardrum. This, in turn, activates a lever system
of three small bones - the hammer (malleus), the anvil
(incus) and the stirrup (stapes), situated in the air-
filled cavity of the middle ear. The stirrup sets up
vibrations in the fluid-filled inner ear and the
mechanical vibrations are transformed into nervous
impulses, which travel to the auditory cortex in the
brain and are recognised as sound.

The effects of noise

1. Deafness
The main effect of noise is the development of deafness, especially when you are
exposed to high levels of continuous noise, for example, during working hours. This may
result in 'noise-induced occupational deafness'. There is no cure and no treatment for
deafness. Damage to your hearing is permanent, and will never get better.
Occupational deafness is a gradual process of reduction of hearing ability associated with
damage to the cochlea. Occupational deafness does not occur accidentally; it is a result of
not reducing exposure to noise, for example, by moving out of a noisy environment or
wearing hearing protection. The initial loss of hearing occurs at frequencies above those
involved in speech (500-2,000Hz) and consequently considerable loss can occur before
the effect becomes noticeable to you. The obvious danger is that considerable damage
may have occurred to the hearing mechanism before you become aware of it, and in later
life, this deafness will become worse because of the natural effects of the aging
processes.

The adverse effect of noise on hearing depends on the characteristics of a sound:

 its intensity - it is probable that sounds of less than 80dB intensity do not cause
noise-induced deafness,
 its frequency - tones of 1000, 2000, 3000 and 4000Hz frequency are considered to
produce the greatest damage,
 its duration - in terms of your exposure during the working day and during your
working life. Your exposure should be more limited at frequencies and intensities
that are likely to cause damage.

2. Noise and performance

Noise causes fatigue and loss of concentration and efficiency, resulting in a decrease in
work output and an increase in the number of mistakes made. Work involving learning is
more susceptible to disruption from noise than routine work. This could be of importance
to a school leaver training on-the-job in a noisy work environment.

3. Speech comprehension
The comprehension of speech is affected by both the sound level of the background noise
and the sound level of the voice itself. The average intensity of a human voice in a room
at a distance of one metre lies within the following ranges:
 conversation 60-65dB(A)
 dictation 65-70dB(A)
 calling out 80-85dB(A)
 The general background noise level must be at least 10dB(A) below these levels if the
sound of the voice is to be heard clearly.

 
Legal requirements for noise

In the UK the Noise at Work Regulations limit the noise to which an employer can expose the employees. It is based
on three Action Levels:
First Action Level: 85dB(A) for 8 hours per day. Employees can demand hearing protection.
Second Action Level: 90dB(A) for 8 hours per day. Employees must wear suitable hearing protection.
Peak Action Level: 140dB(A). This must never be exceeded.
If workers are exposed to noise for more than 8 hours per day, these levels must be reduced. Conversely, if workers are
exposed to noise greater than these levels, then the duration of their exposure to the noise must be reduced.
The following are the recommended noise exposure levels in the UK:

Max noise level (dB(A)) Duration (hrs per day)

90 8
93 4
96 2
99 1
It is likely that these levels will be reduced in the near future due to new legislation called the Physical Agents (Noise)
Directive from the European Commission. This will apply across the European Union.

Guildine for noise level

Specific environment Health effects Target level (dB(A))
Outdoor living area Serious annoyance, daytime and evening 55
Moderate annoyance, daytime and evening 50
Indoor living area Speech intelligibility and moderate annoyance, 35
daytime and evening
Inside bedrooms or hospital ward Sleep disturbance, night time 30
rooms
Outside bedrooms Sleep disturbance (window open) 45
School classrooms Speech intelligibility, disturbance of information 35
extraction, message communication
Hospital treatment rooms Interference with rest and recovery as low as possible
Industrial, commercial, shopping and Hearing impairment 70
traffic areas
Ceremonies, festivals and Hearing impairment 100
entertainment events
Public address Hearing impairment 85
Music through headphones Hearing impairment 85

II. Light
 How much light is needed for various situations or activities?
Poor lighting can cause several problems such as:
 Poor lighting can be a safety hazard – misjudgment of the position, shape
or speed of an object can lead to incidents and injury.
 Poor lighting can affect the quality of work, specifically in situation where
precision is required, and overall productivity.
 Poor lighting can be a health hazard – too much or too little light strains
eyes and may cause eye discomfort (burning, etc.) and headaches.
The amount of light we need varies and depends on:

 Type of task being done (such as demands for speed and accuracy).
 Type of surfaces (does it reflect or absorb light).
 General work area.
 Individual's vision.

The amount of light falling on a surface is measured in units called lux. Depending on
the factors noted above, adequate general lighting is usually between 500 and 1000 lux
when measured 76 cm (30 inches) above the floor.*
Examples of industrial and office tasks and the recommended light levels are in the
table below.

Recommended Illumination Levels*

Ranges of Illuminations
Type of Activity
(Lux)**
Public spaces with dark surroundings 20-50
Simple orientation for short temporary visits 50-100
Working spaces where visual tasks are only occasionally 100-200
performed
Performance of visual tasks of high contrast or large scale 200-500
Performance of visual tasks of medium contrast or small size 500-1000
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast or very small size 1000-2000
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast and very small 2000-5000
size over a prolonged period
Performance of very prolonged and exacting visual tasks 5000-10000
* From: IESNA Lighting Handbook. 9th ed. Illuminating Engineering Society of North
America, 2000. p. 10-13.
**Lux = Lumens (quantity of light) per square metre.
To reach proper light levels and uniform light distribution in the visual environment,
many light fixtures are designed to reflect light off walls, ceilings and objects. The
amount of light reflected off a surface can be measured. Suggestions for the percent of
light reflected off surfaces in a typical office include:

 Window blinds (40-50%).

  Walls (50% maximum).
 Business machines (50% maximum).
 Ceiling (70-80%).
 Floor (20-40%).
 Furniture (25-45%).

The percent value refers to the amount of light that a surface reflects relative to the
amount that falls on the surface.

In addition, light fixtures that are too widely spaced or wrongly positioned can create
shadows. Objects between the light fixture and work being done can block the light and
cast shadows. Likewise, workers sitting with their backs to windows, with light fixtures
directly overhead or to the rear, cast shadows on their own work surfaces.
  How much light is needed for various situations or activities?
To detect insufficient light, try the following:

 Measure the average illumination throughout the workplace. Compare this to the
recommended levels.
 Look for shadows, especially over work areas and on stairways.
 Ask workers if they suffer from eye strain or squint to see, or get frequent
headaches.

Workers should sit in their normal working positions during measurement to give you
accurate results.
To correct insufficient light:

 Replace bulbs on a regular schedule. Old bulbs give less light than new ones, so
replace them before they burn out. Follow manufacturers' instructions.
 Clean light fixtures regularly. Dirt on light fixtures reduces the amount of light
given off. Light fixtures with open tops allow air currents to move dust up through
the fixtures so dust and dirt do not accumulate on them.
 Add more light fixtures in appropriate places.
 Paint walls and ceilings light colours so light can be reflected.
 Use more reflected light and local lighting to eliminate shadows. For example, a
covered light mounted under a transparent guard on a grinding wheel provides
the added light needed to clearly see the task.
 Do not position the work station with the light fixture directly behind worker.

 Glare
Glare is a common lighting problem. Glare is what happens when a bright light source
or reflection interferes with how you are 'seeing' an object. In most cases, your eyes will
adapt to the brightest level of light. When this adaptation happens, it becomes harder to
see the details in the duller or darker areas of the work space (even though they are
actually sufficiently lit!). Glare can cause annoyance and discomfort, and can actually
decrease a person's ability to see.
Reflected glare is caused by:

 Light reflected from polished, shiny or glossy surfaces.

 Glass on picture frames, or windows at night.
 Monitors / screens.

Direct glare is caused by:

 Very bright light from poorly positioned light fixtures.

 Sunlight.

There are several ways to find sources of glare.

 When in your normal working position, look at a distant object at eye level. Block
the light "path" from the fixtures with a book or cardboard. If the distant object is
now easier to see, the light fixtures are probably producing glare.
 To detect reflected glare, look at the task from your normal working position.
Block the light falling on it from the front or above. If details are now easier to
see, reflections are a problem.

 Place a small mirror face up on the work surface. If the mirror reflects light from
above, the light fixture is responsible for glare.
 Look for shiny objects that reflect light. Glass in picture frames, glossy table tops
and monitors or screens are common examples.
  Ask workers if they experience sore or tired eyes, headaches or if they need to
squint to see.

To correct glare, try:

 Using several small low-intensity light fixtures rather than one large high-intensity
light fixture.
 Using light fixtures that diffuse or concentrate light well. Indirect light fixtures or
direct light fixtures with parabolic louvres are two possibilities.
 Covering bare bulbs with louvers, lenses or other devices to control light.
 Increasing the brightness of the area around the glare source.
 Using adjustable local lighting with brightness controls.
 Positioning light fixtures to reduce reflected light that is directed toward the eyes.
  Using low gloss paper or applying flat or semi-gloss paint and matte finishes on
'offending' surfaces. Removing highly polished and shiny objects.
 Keeping general lighting levels at recommended levels.
 Positioning the work station so that windows and fluorescent light tubes are
parallel to the worker's line of sight.
 Position the work station so that the light fixtures are NOT in the front or directly
overhead.

 What should you know about poorly distributed light?

When light is poorly distributed, parts of the ceiling and general surroundings will seem
dark and gloomy. Substantial differences in light levels force your eyes to readjust when
moving from one light level to the other. Workers may find it difficult or impossible to see
properly.
You can detect poorly distributed light by:

 Looking for dark areas and uneven lighting.

 Using a light meter to check the illumination at various points throughout the
workplace. With uniform general lighting, the minimum reading should not be less
than two-thirds of the average value.

Correct for poorly distributed light by:

 Supplementing or replacing light fixtures with ones that distribute some light
upwards.
 Painting ceiling and walls in light colours that reflect light.
 Cleaning ceilings, walls and light fixtures.

III. Temperature

A healthy human body automatically regulates thermal exchange with its

surroundings in order to keep the temperature of the blood constant. If the blood
temperature changes, the body is rapidly put into a state of discomfort and illness, often
resulting in compensation behaviours, or in worst cases, impairing mental or physical
performance. The balance of the body’s heat exchange with the environment can be
expressed in terms of power (energy consumed per time unit, i.e. Joules/second = Watt).
The balance in the following equation (Bohgard, 2009 p. 198) states that the difference
(usually an increase) in power produced by the body and the power generated by the
mechanical work must be balanced by a number of heat/energy losses of different kinds:

 When office temperature is increased from 68 to 77℉, errors can be

expected to fall by 44%, while output can be expected to increase by an
incredible 150%
 The highest productivity level occurs around 71.6℉
 An office of 100 people will have between 8-18 hours wasted each day,
due to temperature; the equivalent of 2% of the team's staff never showing up
to work that day
 Improving temperature conditions can save employers as much as 10%
in extra labor per worker, per hour, that was previously spent on mistakes
made due to a "too-cold" office

In short, it is easier to think when you're comfortable — and, thus, easier to

do your job. Too hot, too cold, or too fluctuating a temperature compromises the
focus, efficiency, accuracy, and, ultimately, output that make for a good, happy
day's work.
"...raising the temperature to a more comfortable thermal zone saves employers
about $2 per worker, per hour..." - Professor Alan Hedge, Cornell Universit

And temperature affects much more than productivity. Colder temperatures

cause our muscles to tense up, creating pain and discomfort. This "chill"
can disproportionately affect women, as females tend to have less muscle mass
than their male counterparts. Adjusting the temperature appropriately thus
improves physical comfort. There is even research connecting warmer
temperatures to a more friendly culture among colleagues, as temperature
influences our mood and general openness to others. Because we are
biologically wired to seek warmth from day one, our ability to stay present
during, say, meetings or conversations with colleagues in passing (where
important relationships have the opportunity to develop), is benefited greatly
when we're physically comfortable, and hurt when we're cold.

Additional Tips for Comfort in the House Office

 Learn hand exercises. For those of us who type a lot, taking preventative
measures against carpal tunnel syndrome is highly recommended, especially
if your hands tend to be cold.
 Check the ergonomics of your workstation. Cold hands could be a
result of an unhealthy typing posture that is restricting blood flow. Your
forearms should be parallel to the floor at a 90° angle to your upper arm when
typing. Maintaining an ergonomic, healthy posture is also key to protecting
against other work-related MSD's (tendonitis, thoracic outlet syndrome,
tension neck syndrome...).
 Layers, layers, layers. Whether you run hot or cold, having the freedom
to take off and put on layers throughout the day = adaptability, when the
temperature fluctuates in the office.
 Move more throughout the day. Taking stretch and movement breaks
throughout the day improves circulation by getting your blood flowing and
increasing your heart rate. And more movement, in general, delivers long-term
health benefits far beyond simply warming the body temporarily.
 Exercise more. If you have poor circulation, pains and strains in the body
from sitting too much, or bad posture, exercise will treat both the cause and
the symptom at the same time — you will, to put it simply, feel better.

IV. Vibration

Vibrations affect our ability to work in both the physical and the mental sense. In a
working environment where there is vibration, there is usually also long-term ambient
noise which may impair concentration or hearing of important information or signals. In
the physical sense, vibrations are a risk because the body tissues and organs absorb the
energy from them. Particularly the muscles compensate for the small forces that
vibrations expose the body to, both by voluntary and involuntary contractions. If the body
is exposed to vibration for a long time duration, this results in excessive low-level static
loading, which not only tires the muscles, but also poses a risk to the joints. As explained
in Chapter 4, the joints’ contact surfaces are covered with cartilage, to cushion and
smoothen the gliding of the bones against each other. Vibrations over long time durations
can wear down the layer of cartilage prematurely, causing joint pain and problems.
Furthermore, because the cartilage is thinnest at the outer edges, we have the least
amount of natural cushioning at the extreme ends of the motion range. This implies that
work in extreme postures in a vibrating environment is a particularly hazardous
ergonomics risk.
Vibrations appear in many immersive working environments, quite frequently in
vehicles such as trucks, buses, ships and forestry equipment, where the body is standing
or sitting on a vibrating base. Aside from the risk of injury to muscles and joints, an
additional risk factor is that different body tissues have different resonance frequencies,
meaning that there is a range of vibrations at which some body tissue will experience
local discomfort (Figure 12.10). These resonance frequencies will Head (axial direction)
about 25 Hz Eyeball, intra-ocular structures 30-80 Hz Chest wall about 60 Hz (lung
volume) Abdominal mass 4-8 Hz Shoulder girdle 4-5 Hz Lower arm 16-30 Hz Spinal
column (axial direction) 10-12 Hz Hand grip 50-200 Hz Legs The resonance frequency
varies, from about 2 Hz with flexed knees to over 20 Hz with rigid knees Person standing
on vibrating platform
 Figure 12.10: Resonance frequencies for different body segments, represented by a
simplified mechanical model of a human standing on a vibrating platform. Image by C.
Berlin, based on Rasmussen (1982)

Work Environmental Factors 235 vary from individual to individual but tend to lie
within a certain range (for example, the resonance frequency of the shoulder complex
typically lies between 4 to 6 Hz, according to Bohgard, 2009 and Rasmussen, 1982). Not
only the joints and muscles are at risk; even the internal organs, eyes, brain and spine are
sensitive to vibration at different frequencies. Particularly the eyes atresonance frequency
cannot function, leading to impaired visual work due to the vibrating environment. Low-
frequency vertical vibration (lower than 1 Hz) has a particular tendency to cause nausea
or drowsiness, depending on the amplitude or intensity and the resonance frequencies of
the individual’s body segments. This explains why some people can experience motion
sickness in a vehicle or ship, while others are lulled to sleep. (Either way, there is a
definite impairment to alertness.)

V. Radiation

Radiation is a mostly invisible environmental factor that has the potential to cause
serious long-term ill health effects, and it is important to know something about the
range of consequences that may result from radiation exposure. Sources of radiation
include equipment, radioactive substances, particles in the air, food, sunlight, lamps,
radios and electrically charged materials. Generally, the way to limit radiation exposure
is by placing a shield between the source of radiation and the human. The human body
absorbs radiation but has the potential to recover from very low doses, as long as
sufficient recovery time is allowed between exposures. However, excessive short-term
exposure may result in immediate fatal effects. In occupational/industrial hygiene, the
remedies to protect workers against radiation are regulation of time, distance and
shielding.
However, it is important to remember that radiation is also very useful; for example,
X-rays allow us to non-invasively identify damages in the body; UV radiation can
disinfect surfaces and reveal the presence of materials not otherwise visible to the
human eye; microwaves allow rapid heating of food materials; and IR cameras can be
used to detect motion in places that are too dark for the human eye to see.