5.

DIAGRAMATIC AND GRAPHICAL

REPRESENTATION
5.1 Introduction:
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the techniques of classification and tabulation
that help in summarising the collected data and presenting them in a systematic manner.
However, these forms of presentation do not always prove to be interesting to the common man.
One of the most convincing and appealing ways in which statistical results may be presented
is through diagrams and graphs. Just one diagram is enough to represent a given data more
effectively than thousand words.

Moreover even a layman who has nothing to do with numbers can also understands
diagrams. Evidence of this can be found in newspapers, magazines, journals, advertisement,
etc. An attempt is made in this chapter to illustrate some of the major types of diagrams and
graphs frequently used in presenting statistical data.
5.2 Diagrams:
A diagram is a visual from for presentation of statistical data, highlighting their basic
facts and relationship. If we draw diagrams on the basis of the data collected they will easily be
understood and appreciated by all. It is readily intelligible and save a considerable amount of
time and energy.
5.3 Significance of Diagrams and Graphs:
Diagrams and graphs are extremely useful because of the following reasons.
1. They are attractive and impressive.
2. They make data simple and intelligible.
3. They make comparison possible
4. They save time and labour.
5. They have universal utility.
6. They give more information.
7. They have a great memorizing effect.
5.4 General rules for constructing diagrams:
The construction of diagrams is an art, which can be acquired through practice.
However, observance of some general guidelines can help in making them more attractive and
effective. The diagrammatic presentation of statistical facts will be advantageous provided the
following rules are observed in drawing diagrams.
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1. A diagram should be neatly drawn and attractive.
2. The measurements of geometrical figures used in diagram should be accurate and
proportional.
3. The size of the diagrams should match the size of the paper.
4. Every diagram must have a suitable but short heading.
5. The scale should be mentioned in the diagram.
6. Diagrams should be neatly as well as accurately drawn with the help of drawing
instruments.
7. Index must be given for identification so that the reader can easily make out the meaning of
the diagram.
8. Footnote must be given at the bottom of the diagram.
9. Economy in cost and energy should be exercised in drawing diagram.
5.5 Types of diagrams:
In practice, a very large variety of diagrams are in use and new ones are constantly being
added. For the sake of convenience and simplicity, they may be divided under the following
heads:
1. One-dimensional diagrams
2. Two-dimensional diagrams
3. Three-dimensional diagrams
4. Pictograms and Cartograms
5.5.1 One-dimensional diagrams:
In such diagrams, only one-dimensional measurement, i.e height is used and the width
is not considered. These diagrams are in the form of bar or line charts and can be classified as
1. Line Diagram
2. Simple Diagram
3. Multiple Bar Diagram
4. Sub-divided Bar Diagram
5. Percentage Bar Diagram
Line Diagram:

Line diagram is used in case where there are many items to be shown and there is not
much of difference in their values. Such diagram is prepared by drawing a vertical line for each
item according to the scale. The distance between lines is kept uniform. Line diagram makes
comparison easy, but it is less attractive.
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Example 1:

Show the following data by a line chart:

No. of children 0 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency 10 14 9 6 4 2
Line Diagram

16
14
12
Frequency

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
No. of Children

Simple Bar Diagram:

Simple bar diagram can be drawn either on horizontal or vertical base, but bars on
horizontal base more common. Bars must be uniform width and intervening space between bars
must be equal. While constructing a simple bar diagram, the scale is determined on the basis of
the highest value in the series.

To make the diagram attractive, the bars can be coloured. Bar diagram are used in
business and economics. However, an important limitation of such diagrams is that they can
present only one classification or one category of data. For example, while presenting the
population for the last five decades, one can only depict the total population in the simple bar
diagrams, and not its sex-wise distribution.
Example 2:

Represent the following data by a bar diagram.

Year Production (in tones)

1991 45

1992 40

1993 42

1994 55
1995 50

60
Solution :
Simple Bar Diagram
60

50

40

)in tonnes(
Production
30

20

10

0
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Year

Multiple Bar Diagram:

Multiple bar diagram is used for comparing two or more sets of statistical data. Bars are
constructed side by side to represent the set of values for comparison. In order to distinguish
bars, they may be either differently coloured or there should be different types of crossings or
dotting, etc. An index is also prepared to identify the meaning of different colours or dottings.

Example 3:

Draw a multiple bar diagram for the following data.

Year Profit before tax (in lakhs of rupees) Profit after tax (in lakhs of rupees)
1998 195 80
1999 200 87
2000 165 45
2001 140 32
Solution :
Multiple Bar Diagram

200
180
160
140
Profit )in Rs(

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1998 1999 2000 2001
Year
Profit before tax Profit after tax

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Sub-divided Bar Diagram:
In a sub-divided bar diagram, the bar is sub-divided into various parts in proportion to
the values given in the data and the whole bar represent the total. Such diagrams are also called
Component Bar diagrams. The sub divisions are distinguished by different colours or crossings
or dottings.
The main defect of such a diagram is that all the parts do not have a common base to
enable one to compare accurately the various components of the data.
Example 4:

Represent the following data by a sub-divided bar diagram.

Monthly expenditure (in Rs.)

Expenditure items
Family A Family B
Food 75 95
Clothing 20 25
Education 15 10
Housing Rent 40 65
Miscellaneous 25 35
Solution :

Percentage bar diagram:

This is another form of component bar diagram. Here the components are not the actual
values but percentages of the whole. The main difference between the sub-divided bar diagram
and percentage bar diagram is that in the former the bars are of different heights since their
totals may be different whereas in the latter the bars are of equal height since each bar represents
100 percent. In the case of data having sub-division, percentage bar diagram will be more
appealing than sub-divided bar diagram.
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Example 5:

Represent the following data by a percentage bar diagram.

Particular Factory X Factory Y

Selling Price 400 650
Quantity Sold 240 365
Wages 3500 5000
Materials 2100 3500
Miscellaneous 1400 2100
Solution:

Convert the given values into percentages as follows:

Particulars Factory A Factory B

Rs. % Rs. %
Selling Price 400 5 650 6
Quantity Sold 240 3 365 3
Wages 3500 46 5000 43
Materials 2100 28 3500 30
Miscellaneous 1400 18 2100 18
Total 7640 100 11615 100
Solution :
Sub-divided Percentage Bar Diagram

5.5.2 Two-dimensional Diagrams:

In one-dimensional diagrams, only length 9 is taken into account. But in two-dimensional

diagrams the area represent the data and so the length and breadth have both to be taken into
account. Such diagrams are also called area diagrams or surface diagrams. The important types
of area diagrams are:

1. Rectangles 2. Squares 3. Circles or Pie-diagrams

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Rectangles:

Rectangles are used to represent the relative magnitude of two or more values. The
area of the rectangles are kept in proportion to the values. Rectangles are placed side by side
for comparison. When two sets of figures are to be represented by rectangles, either of the two
methods may be adopted.

We may represent the figures as they are given or may convert them to percentages
and then subdivide the length into various components. Thus the percentage sub-divided
rectangular diagram is more popular than sub-divided rectangular since it enables comparison
to be made on a percentage basis.
Example 6:

Represent the following data by sub-divided percentage rectangular diagram.

Items of Expenditure Family A Family B

(Income Rs. 5000) (income Rs. 8000)
Food 2000 2500
Clothing 1000 2000
House Rent 800 1000
Fuel and lighting 400 500
Miscellaneous 800 2000
Total 5000 8000

Solution:

The items of expenditure will be converted into percentage as shown below:

Items of Expenditure Family A Family B

Rs. Y Rs. Y

Food 2000 40 2500 31

Clothing 1000 20 2000 25

House Rent 800 16 1000 13

Fuel and lighting 400 8 500 6

Miscellaneous 800 16 2000 25

Total 5000 100 8000 100

64
 SUBDIVIDED PERCENTAGE RECTANGULAR DIAGRAM
120

100

80

Percentage
60

40

20

0
Family A (0-5000) Family B (0-8000)

Food Clothing House Rent Fuel and Lighting Miscellaneous

Squares:

The rectangular method of diagrammatic presentation is difficult to use where the values
of items vary widely. The method of drawing a square diagram is very simple. One has to take
the square root of the values of various item that are to be shown in the diagrams and then select
a suitable scale to draw the squares.
Example 7:

Yield of rice in Kgs. per acre of five countries are

Country U.S.A. Australia U.K Canada India

Yield of rice in Kgs per acre 6400 1600 2500 3600 4900
Represent the above data by Square diagram.
Solution:

To draw the square diagram we calculate as follows:

Country Yield Square root Side of the square in

cm
U.S.A 6400 80 4
Australia 1600 40 2
U.K. 2500 50 2.5
Canada 3600 60 3
India 4900 70 3.5

4 cm
3.5 cm
3 cm
2.5 cm
2 cm

USA AUST UK CANADA INDIA

65
Pie Diagram or Circular Diagram:

Another way of preparing a two-dimensional diagram is in the form of circles. In such

diagrams, both the total and the component parts or sectors can be shown. The area of a circle
is proportional to the square of its radius.

While making comparisons, pie diagrams should be used on a percentage basis and not
on an absolute basis. In constructing a pie diagram the first step is to prepare the data so that
various components values can be transposed into corresponding degrees on the circle.

The second step is to draw a circle of appropriate size with a compass. The size of
the radius depends upon the available space and other factors of presentation. The third step
is to measure points on the circle and representing the size of each sector with the help of a
protractor.
Example 8:

Draw a Pie diagram for the following data of production of sugar in quintals of various
countries.

Country Production of Sugar

(in quintals)
Cuba 62
Australia 47
India 35
Japan 16
Egypt 6
Solution:

The values are expressed in terms of degree as follows.

Production of Sugar
Country
In Quintals In Degrees
Cuba 62 134
Australia 47 102
India 35 76
Japan 16 35
Egypt 6 13
Total 166 360

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 Pie Diagram

5.5.3 Three-dimensional diagrams:

Three-dimensional diagrams, also known as volume diagram, consist of cubes, cylinders,

spheres, etc. In such diagrams three things, namely length, width and height have to be taken
into account. Of all the figures, making of cubes is easy. Side of a cube is drawn in proportion
to the cube root of the magnitude of data. Cubes of figures can be ascertained with the help of
logarithms. The logarithm of the figures can be divided by 3 and the antilog of that value will
be the cube-root.
Example 9:

Represent the following data by volume diagram.

Category Number of Students

Under graduate 64000
Post graduate 27000
Professionals 8000
Solution:

The sides of cubes can be determined as follows

Category Number of Students Cube root Side of cube

Under graduate 64000 40 4 cm
Post graduate 27000 30 3 cm
Professionals 8000 20 2 cm

4 cm 3 cm 2 cm

Undergraduate Postgraduate Professional

67
5.5.4 Pictograms and Cartograms:
Pictograms are not abstract presentation such as lines or bars but really depict the kind
of data we are dealing with. Pictures are attractive and easy to comprehend and as such this
method is particularly useful in presenting statistics to the layman. When Pictograms are used,
data are represented through a pictorial symbol that is carefully selected.
Cartograms or statistical maps are used to give quantitative information as a geographical
basis. They are used to represent spatial distributions. The quantities on the map can be shown in
many ways such as through shades or colours or dots or placing pictogram in each geographical
unit.
5.6 Graphs:
A graph is a visual form of presentation of statistical data. A graph is more attractive
than a table of figure. Even a common man can understand the message of data from the graph.
Comparisons can be made between two or more phenomena very easily with the help of a
graph.
However here we shall discuss only some important types of graphs which are more
popular and they are
1.Histogram 2. Frequency Polygon
3.Frequency Curve 4. Ogive 5. Lorenz Curve
5.6.1 Histogram:
A histogram is a bar chart or graph showing the frequency of occurrence of each value
of the variable being analysed. In histogram, data are plotted as a series of rectangles. Class
intervals are shown on the ‘X-axis’ and the frequencies on the ‘Y-axis’ .
The height of each rectangle represents the frequency of the class interval. Each rectangle
is formed with the other so as to give a continuous picture. Such a graph is also called staircase
or block diagram.
However, we cannot construct a histogram for distribution with open-end classes. It
is also quite misleading if the distribution has unequal intervals and suitable adjustments in
frequencies are not made.
Example 10:
Draw a histogram for the following data.
Daily Wages Number of Workers
0-50 8
50-100 16
100-150 27
150-200 19
200-250 10
250-300 6

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Solution :
HISTOGRAM
30

25

Number of Workers
20

15

10

0
50 100 150 200 250

Daily Wages (in Rs.)

Example 11:

For the following data, draw a histogram.

Marks Number of Students

21-30 6
31-40 15
41-50 22
51-60 31
61-70 17
71-80 9

Solution:

For drawing a histogram, the frequency distribution should be continuous. If it is not continuous,
then first make it continuous as follows.

Marks Number of Students

20.5-30.5 6
30.5-40.5 15
40.5-50.5 22
50.5-60.5 31
60.5-70.5 17
70.5-80.5 9

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 HISTOGRAM
35

30

25
Number of Students

20

15

10

0
20.5 30.5 40.5 50.5 60.5 70.5 80.5

Marks

Example 12:

Draw a histogram for the following data.

Profits Number of
(in lakhs) Companies

0-10 4

10-20 12

20-30 24

30-50 32

50-80 18

80-90 9

90-100 3

Solution:

When the class intervals are unequal, a correction for unequal class intervals must be
made. The frequencies are adjusted as follows: The frequency of the class 30-50 shall be divided
by two since the class interval is in double. Similarly the class interval 50- 80 can be divided by
3. Then draw the histogram.

Now we rewrite the frequency table as follows.

70
 Profits Number of
(in lakhs) Companies
0-10 4
10-20 12
20-30 24
30-40 16
40-50 16
50-60 6
60-70 6
70-80 6
80-90 9
90-100 3
HISTOGRAM
30

25
No. of Companies

20

15

10

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Profit (in Lakhs)
5.6.2 Frequency Polygon:
If we mark the midpoints of the top horizontal sides of the rectangles in a histogram and
join them by a straight line, the figure so formed is called a Frequency Polygon. This is done
under the assumption that the frequencies in a class interval are evenly distributed throughout
the class. The area of the polygon is equal to the area of the histogram, because the area left
outside is just equal to the area included in it.
Example 13:
Draw a frequency polygon for the following data.
Weight (in kg) Number of Students
30-35 4
35-40 7
40-45 10
45-50 18
50-55 14
55-60 8
60-65 3

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 FREQUENCY POLYGON
20

18

16

14
Number of Students

12

10

0
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

Weight (in kgs)

5.6.3 Frequency Curve:

If the middle point of the upper boundaries of the rectangles of a histogram is corrected
by a smooth freehand curve, then that diagram is called frequency curve. The curve should
begin and end at the base line.
Example 14:

Draw a frequency curve for the following data.

Monthly Wages No. of family

(in Rs.)
0-1000 21
1000-2000 35
2000-3000 56
3000-4000 74
4000-5000 63
5000-6000 40
6000-7000 29
7000-8000 14

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Solution :

FREQUENCY CURVE
80

70

60

50
No. of Family

40

30

20

10

0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Monthly Wages in Rs.

5.6.4 Ogives:

For a set of observations, we know how to construct a frequency distribution. In some

cases we may require the number of observations less than a given value or more than a given
value. This is obtained by a accumulating (adding) the frequencies upto

These cumulative frequencies are then listed in a table is called cumulative frequency
table. The curve table is obtained by plotting cumulative frequencies is called a cumulative
frequency curve or an ogive.

There are two methods of constructing ogive namely:

1. The ‘ less than ogive’ method

2. The ‘more than ogive’ method.

In less than ogive method we start with the upper limits of the classes and go adding
the frequencies. When these frequencies are plotted, we get a rising curve. In more than ogive
method, we start with the lower limits of the classes and from the total frequencies we subtract
the frequency of each class. When these frequencies are plotted we get a declining curve.

73
Example 15:

Draw the Ogives for the following data.

Class interval Frequency

20-30 4
30-40 6
40-50 13
50-60 25
60-70 32
70-80 19
80-90 8
90-100 3
Solution :

Class limit Less than ogive More than ogive

20 0 110
30 4 106
40 10 100
50 23 87
60 48 62
70 80 30
80 99 11
90 107 3
100 110 0

Ogives
x axis 1 cm = 10 units
Y y axis 1 cm = 10 units
120
110
100
90
Cumulative frequency

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
X
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Class limit

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5.6.5 Lorenz Curve:

Lorenz curve is a graphical method of studying dispersion. It was introduced by

Max.O.Lorenz, a great Economist and a statistician, to study the distribution of wealth and
income. It is also used to study the variability in the distribution of profits, wages, revenue, etc.

It is specially used to study the degree of inequality in the distribution of income and
wealth between countries or between different periods. It is a percentage of cumulative values
of one variable in combined with the percentage of cumulative values in other variable and then
Lorenz curve is drawn.

The curve starts from the origin (0,0) and ends at (100,100). If the wealth, revenue, land
etc are equally distributed among the people of the country, then the Lorenz curve will be the
diagonal of the square. But this is highly impossible.

The deviation of the Lorenz curve from the diagonal, shows how the wealth, revenue,
land etc are not equally distributed among people.
Example 16:

In the following table, profit earned is given from the number of companies belonging
to two areas A and B. Draw in the same diagram their Lorenz curves and interpret them.
Profit earned Number of Companies
(in thousands) Area A Area B
5 7 13
26 12 25
65 14 43
89 28 57
110 33 45
155 25 28
180 18 13
200 8 6
Solution:
Profits Area A Area B
Cumulative

Cumulative

Cumulative

Cumulative

Cumulative

Cumulative
percentage

percentage

percentage
companies

companies
number

number
No. of

No. of
In Rs.

profit

5 5 1 7 7 5 13 13 6
26 31 4 12 19 13 25 38 17
65 96 12 14 33 23 43 81 35
89 185 22 28 61 42 57 138 60
110 295 36 33 94 65 45 183 80
155 450 54 25 119 82 28 211 92
180 630 76 18 137 94 13 224 97
200 830 100 8 145 100 6 230 100

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 LORENZ-CURVE
100

90

80

70
Cumulative Percentage of Profit

60
Line of Equal Distribution

50 Area - A

40 Area - B

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Cumulative Percentage of Company

Exercise – 5
I Choose the best answer:

1. Which of the following is one dimensional diagram.

(a) Bar diagram (b) Pie diagram (c) Cylinder (d) Histogram

2. Percentage bar diagram has

(a) data expressed in percentages (b) equal width

(c) equal interval (d) equal width and equal interval

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3. Frequency curve

(a) begins at the origin (b) passes through the origin

(c) begins at the horizontal line. (d) begins and ends at the base line.

4. With the help of histogram we can draw

(a) frequency polygon (b) frequency curve

(c) frequency distribution (d) all the above

5. Ogives for more than type and less than type distribution intersect at

(a) mean (b) median (c) mode (d) origin

II Fill in the blanks:

1. Sub-divided bar diagram are also called _____ diagram.

2. In rectangular diagram, comparison is based on _____ of the rectangles.

3. Squares are ______ dimensional diagrams.

4. Ogives for more than type and less than type distribution intersects at ______.

5. _________ Curve is graphical method of studying dispersion.

III. Answer the following:

1. What is diagram?

2. How diagrams are useful in representing statistical data

3. What are the significance of diagrams?

4. What are the rules for making a diagram?

5. What are the various types of diagrams

6. Write short notes on (a) Bar diagram (b) Sub divided bar diagram.

7. What is a pie diagram?

8. Write short notes on

a) Histogram b) Frequency Polygon c) Frequency curve d) Ogive

9. What are less than ogive and more than ogive? What purpose do they serve?

10. What is Lorenz curve? Mention its important.

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