Chapter 4

Watershed components and Processes

In physical terms, a watershed is an area from which water drains to a common point. This trait
results in a set of physical and biological interactions and processes that causes the watershed to
function as an ecological unit. Watersheds can be considered at a range of nested scales,
beginning with the area contributing to a small first-order stream and culminating with the
world’s great river basins. Ultimately, stream processes that create habitat integrate the physical
and biological processes occurring across the contributing watershed.

Watersheds are the geographic areas that channel drainage into a river or stream system. They are defined
by topographic boundaries and—depending on where they are located—might encompass complex
natural ecosystems, highly urbanized landscapes, or elements of both. The term “watershed processes”
refers to the dynamic physical and chemical interactions that form and maintain the landscape on the scale
of a watershed.

Both natural and built environment watersheds have three distinct characteristics: (1) upland zones that
intercept, infiltrate, and transport rain as groundwater and surface water flow, (2) riparian zones that
border surface water bodies, filter surface water runoff, and provide shade that can lower water
temperature, and (3) surface water bodies, such as rivers and lakes, that provide habitat, food, and water
to aquatic and terrestrial species. Naturally functioning watersheds can also provide migratory corridors
and habitat connectivity for birds and mammals.

Watersheds can assimilate some level of land development and air and water contamination while
continuing to provide the above-stated benefits. Converting natural watersheds to land uses such as
agriculture, housing, and industrial activities can directly interact with natural forces to change the
condition of the land and water as well as the species associated with it. An example of this type of
change is increasing impervious surfaces (such as covering soil with concrete or asphalt) in urban areas.
This leads to decreased water retention and infiltration, which then leads to increased water runoff.
Increased water runoff can in turn lead to increased erosion and can carry contaminants into surface water
bodies, where increased stream velocities resulting from increased flows can significantly alter the stream
channel and reduce the presence, abundance, and diversity of aquatic species.

4.1 Watershed Components

Across landscapes, two controlling factors - climate and geology - create three basic ecosystem
components: soil, vegetation, and water (Note: the effects of animals on soil and vegetation will
be ignored for the sake of simplicity). These components are overlaid on, and influenced by,
topography that is also shaped by climate and geology. Within watersheds, the interactions of
these components result in yields of streamflow and sediment with patterns of timing, quantity,
and quality characteristic of each watershed. These yields of water and sediment, in turn
interacting with riparian vegetation (and, in steep, forested watersheds, large wood delivered from
upland sources), form the stream channel and associated aquatic habitat.
4.1.1 Soil
The soil mantle is a natural storage reservoir for water delivered to the watershed, absorbing rain or
snowmelt and gradually transmitting it down slope. Thus, water stored in the soil is a primary source of
streamflow between storms or periods of snowmelt. The storage capacity of soil depends on its depth
and texture, (i.e., the total pore space available). The rate at which soil water is delivered to the stream
system depends on slope, and soil texture and structure. Well-developed soils have many sizes of pores
with varying degrees of connectedness. Large pores allow rapid infiltration and drainage of water to and
from the soil mass; small pores absorb water more gradually and retain it longer, making water available
during dry periods for use by plants, or for slow seepage into the stream system.

The development of soil depends upon geology, topography, time, climate, disturbance factors, and
biological agents (e.g., vegetation and soil organisms). The protective vegetative cover above ground
and stabilizing strength of roots below ground are critical to soil development and stability, particularly
on steep slopes.

The rate and magnitude of soil erosion and sedimentation are vital for watershed community i.e.
people and animal. Accelerated erosion
 Results in a loss of land mass as a natural resource.
 Adversely affects the productivity and production on agricultural horticultural, forest
lands and grasslands; (at higher elevation).
 Results in higher production due to transportation of silt and sediments into the rivers and
reservoirs and then on agricultural land but also results into the reduction of life and
benefits of the reservoir; (in plains).
 results in situation of streams and rivers which causes flash floods;
 results in severe drought due to low soil infiltration, excessive runoff etc;
 results in converting useful economic assets into useless commodities by formation of
ravines etc and
 Results in damage to property.
4.1.2 Water
Quantity, quality and timing of water discharged from a watershed are integrated results of watershed
processes. Distributed across the landscape in the form of rain or snow, water is transported through
the watershed, leaving by way of transpiration, evaporation, streamflow, and groundwater flow.
Climate, topography, soil, and vegetation control the processing of water through the watershed.
Because the combination of these factors is unique to each watershed, the characteristic timing and
magnitude of flows through the stream system constitute the ‘signature’ of the watershed. For example,
arid watersheds, in addition to sparse vegetation, typically have thin, poorly developed soils with low
infiltration rates and little water-holding capacity. Where arid conditions are combined with
steep terrain, runoff tends to occur rapidly following precipitation events, resulting in a ‘flashy’
hydrograph that peaks and declines swiftly. Conversely, where climate supports dense
vegetation, an undeveloped watershed with gentle relief will tend to gradually yield high flows
that gently peak and taper off into strongly sustained base flows. Characteristic elements of the
hydrologic "signature" of watersheds include: 1) high flows - reflecting snowmelt, prolonged
winter rainfall, rain-on-snow events, or intense summer rainstorms, 2) rates of recession from
peak to low flows, and 3) low flows – reflecting groundwater discharge, or water released from
natural storage features such as wetlands and lakes.

In watersheds where rainfall is the dominant form of precipitation, runoff occurs in response to
storm events and the ability of the watershed to store precipitation. To a large degree, this ability
is dictated by soil moisture conditions prior to the onset of the storm. Obviously, frozen and
saturated soils have virtually no storage capability, and rain falling on them will be quickly
delivered to the stream system. Conversely, rainfall delivered at the end of a long, dry period
may do no more than replenish soil moisture, causing little response in streamflow.

Water quality, quantity and regime are influenced by watershed conditions.

Runoff
 results into loss if water from the watershed which could have been utilized
by the community for drinking, domestic use, irrigation, industry etc;
 results in sheet grill, gully or ravenous erosion of soil from the watershed;
 leads to decline in ground water table and effects recharge adversely; and
 Results in damage to property and life.

Fig. 4.1 The order of the stream increases away from its place of origin
4.1.3 Vegetation
Vegetation performs a variety of functions on the watershed scale. It provides strength and roughness
across the surface of the watershed, thereby slowing the movement of water and increasing resistance
to erosion while promoting the development of deep soils. The vegetative canopy intercepts
precipitation, allowing a portion to evaporate before reaching the ground, but subsequently inhibiting
evaporation from the ground surface. Water use by vegetation (i.e., evapotranspiration) removes water
from the soil. Vegetative litter slows overland flow and protects the soil surface from raindrop impacts,
preventing splash erosion and the sealing of surface pores. Root channels increase infiltration capacity.
The presence of decayed vegetation and other organic matter characterizes the topsoil, and greatly
influence its properties and structure.
Water use by vegetation reduces total runoff from the associated land areas. However, the combined
influences of vegetation and soil also greatly attenuates the movement of water through the watershed,
dampening peak flows, sustaining streamflow during dry periods, and maintaining high water quality.

4.2 Watershed Characteristics

Physiographic:
(a) Size: The size or area of a watershed is an important parameter in determining the peak rate
of runoff. The rate and volume of runoff increase with size of the watershed area.
(b) Shape: Long and narrow watersheds are likely to have longer time of concentration resulting
in lower runoff rates than square shaped watershed of the same size. The longer it takes water to
leave the watershed, the move the opportunity or the water to infiltrate in the soil.

Fig. 4.2: Ridges act as water divide and form limits of watershed

(c) Land Slope: The speed and extent of runoff depends on he shape of the land. The velocity of
flow if the runoff increases with increase in land slope. The erosive capacity of the runoff is
directly proportional to the slope of land on which the runoff occurs. Thus soil erosion also
increases with increase in slope. The land use is also determined by the slope.
(d) Drainage density and pattern: High drainage density watershed drains runoff water rapidly
Drainage pattern is influenced by the slope, lithology, structure, distribution of rock systems etc.
The coarser the drainage texture, the higher the conductivity.
(e) Land use: The land in a watershed has to be used for numerous purposes like cultivation
forestry, livestock production, housing water harvesting etc. The land use affects rate of runoff,
infiltration and types and quality of vegetation. Suitable land use minimizes the soil erosion and
reduces the runoff.

Vegetative cover:

The type, quantity and quality of vegetative cover in watershed influences runoff, erosion and
sediment production, rate of evaporation and infiltration rate. The first effect of vegetation is to
intercept a portion of the rain through the process of wetting the leaves, branches and stem. In
dense vegetation with three tiers of trees, shrubs and grasses, this intercepted moisture may be
substantial.
Following the end of precipitation a portion of this moisture falls to the ground due to wind. This
delayed precipitation prolongs the period of rainfall at the ground surface and tends to increase
infiltration into the ground. The second influence of vegetation is to protect and shade the soil.
Vegetation protects the soil against the impact if direct rainfall through its leaves (which reduces
the rain drop velocity) and roots (which anchor soil particles). Vegetation has a large effect on
infiltration – by shielding the surface from impact, by roots opening channels in the soil for
transmission of water by falling leaves becoming a mulch on the soil surface (an important
ingredient for soil building process) and through the process of transpiration creating moisture
deficiency or storage potential. A good cover of vegetation, thus, reduces soil erosion and runoff.

Fig. 4.3: Relationship between the nature of slope and the vegetal cover

Rainfall:

The amount, frequency and intensity of rainfall determine the behaviors of watershed. Evenly
dispersed rainfall is less damaging the soil and water than sudden, sharp showers.

4.3 Socio-economic factors:

A. Demographic profile: Total population of the area, sex-age-ethnic group stratification,
location and occupation of the population, migration, future demon graphic trends decide
the behavioral characteristics of watershed.
B. Sociological stratification: Caste, lineage, families, lines of authority, heterogeneity,
political organisation, groupings, social status and political role individual, members,
relations between members, spatial distribution of the community and CPR (Common
Property Resources) modify the watershed characteristics.
C. Farm Structure: Area of farm, number of farm workers, division of labour on farm,
collective/individual farming, traditional clopping area, agricultural techniques, land
management systems are important factors affecting a watershed.
D. Attitude and behavior: Attitudes, aptitude and behavioral patterns, value systems may
also play an important role in the performance of the watershed.
E. Land tenure systems: Land holding sizes, dominant classes, landholding classes and
castes, methods of land acquisition, alienation of land rights, relationship between land
rights and social, political or religious systems, land leasing, share cropping, marketing
system of agricultural Forestry produce affect watershed functioning.
4.4 Watershed Processes and Riparian Buffer Functions

The types of general watershed processes described in the previous section can be broken down into a
number of specific functions and characteristics, displayed in Table 4-1 below. Biologists use these
characteristics as indicators of the overall health of a watershed.

Watershed Process Functions and Characteristics

Soil structure, soil organics, soil water repellency, soil moisture, infiltration,
Soils, soil processes, and
organic matter mineralization, soil and root interactions, soil formation,
erosion
topography, soil transport, and soil redistribution following land use changes

Nutrient cycling Nitrogen dynamics, phosphate fluxes, nitrogen loads through base flow, storm
flow and underflow, biogeochemistry, nutrient and metal dynamics
Pollutant transport Deposition, surface runoff, impacts on water quality, stream temperatures,
nutrient concentrations

Riparian habitat and stream

Plant canopy, surface plants and litter, shade loss, riparian vegetation
buffers
Stream morphology
Channel characteristics, habitat conditions, stream channel banks, bank stability,
sediment transport, in-channel debris torrents
Hydrology Stream peak flow, rainfall, land cover relationships to stream hydrology, ground
water flow, wet and dry seasons, surface and subsurface hydrology,
groundwater and surface water interaction

Stream chemistry Water quality, pH, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, phosphate, turbidity, benthic macro
invertebrates

TABLE 4-1 Watershed Functions and Characteristics Bel-Red Corridor Draft Environmental
Impact Statement

4.4 .1 Influence of Disturbance on Watershed Processes

The concept of disturbance is so central to understanding ecosystem functioning that it is worth

providing a definition for the term at this point:
“Any relatively discrete event in time that disrupts ecosystem, community, or population
structure and changes resources, substrate availability, or the physical environment”
(Society of American Foresters, 1996).
Periodic large- and small-scale disturbance is critical to ecosystem functioning, resetting the
‘successional clock’ and preventing the vegetative community from maintaining a homogeneous
climax state. Under natural circumstances, disturbances (e.g., fire, disease, landslides, and
flooding – see Figure 4.1) within an ecosystem occur with characteristic frequencies, intensities,
and extents. Thus, every ecosystem evolves with a particular disturbance regime. Within a
given ecosystem, the variability of size, intensity, and frequency of different disturbance events
creates a mosaic of vegetation at various successional stages.

Over a landscape scale, the disturbance-driven mosaic tends to remain in dynamic equilibrium
during a given climatic period. It is the diversity inherent in this mosaic that provides diverse
habitat. For example, many species of plants and animals are dependent on early- to mid-
successional stages (biological diversity commonly peaks at the mid-successional stage). The
availability of this habitat type limits the populations of numerous species.
Vegetation, in turn, interacts with the disturbance regime. For instance, among plant
communities, the accumulation, distribution, and type of fuel vary greatly. These are major
factors in fire frequency and intensity, which in turn strongly affects the species composition and
structure of the plant community.

4.4.2 Erosion and Sediment Yield

Erosion is a natural process, made inevitable by gravity, wind, the weathering of rocks (i.e., soil
formation), and the energy of flowing water. Erosion processes and rates are controlled by
climate, topography, soils, and vegetation. Forested landscapes generally undergo little or no
overland flow or surface erosion, with the organic litter on the forest floor sustaining infiltration
rates greater than rates of rainfall or snow melt. In contrast, in arid or semi-arid landscapes with
partially exposed soil, surface erosion may be the dominant erosional process.

Figure 4.4: a) Fire. b) Insect outbreak leading to tree mortality. c) Deep-seated landslide. d)
Aftermath of flooding.

Erosion rates tend to be episodic and linked to disturbance and weather. Substantial surface
erosion occurs following the removal of vegetation with extreme rates occurring after severe fire
consumes the protective organic layer and exposes bare mineral soil. Mass-wasting (i.e.,
landslides, debris flows, etc.) is the result of the gradual accumulation of soil in unstable
locations, combined with a triggering mechanism, such as soil saturation, that activates the event.
Streambank erosion, the process by which water loosens and wears away soil and rock from the
edge of a stream, generally occurs during high flow events. Figure 4.5 illustrates the different
types of erosion. All three types of erosion peak during storms or periods of rapid snow melt.
 (A) (B) (C)
Figure 4.5: a) Surface erosion from a road. b) Mass-wasting. c) Bank erosion.

Sediment, alternating between moving in brief pulses and being stored in channels or
floodplains, is a major watershed product naturally transported and discharged by stream
systems. In the same way that a given watershed produces a characteristic streamflow regime, it
also has a characteristic sediment budget over time. The budget, consisting of both sediment
quantity and quality (i.e., the distribution of particle sizes transported) is largely a reflection of
the climate, geology, topography, vegetation, and disturbance regime across the watershed.

4.4.3 Land Use Effects on Watershed Processes

The effects of widespread land use tend to accumulate within watersheds, both over time and in
the downstream direction. Any land use altering one of the three basic watershed components -
soil, vegetation, or water - will affect watershed functioning. Land use (e.g., logging, grazing,
farming and urbanization) generally alters vegetation, often intercepting and diverting the
movement of water. Land use may also directly affect the soil through compaction. Road
building, in addition to removing vegetation, exposing soils, and creating impermeable surfaces,
can drastically alter the routing of water through watersheds. Numerous attempts to increase
runoff by removing vegetation have had serious unintended consequences such as greatly
increased erosion, earlier, flashier runoff, and correspondingly decreased base flows (i.e., more
water when it is not desired and less water when it is in short supply).
Reduced vegetation, soil compaction, soil exposure, and increased velocity of water movement
result in increased erosion. Erosional processes, once altered, often accelerate over time:
overland flow across exposed soils creates rills that rapidly develop into gullies; sheet flow
becomes channelized (expanding the drainage network), and more erosive. Expanded drainage
networks reduce soil water storage by capturing water at the soil surface (reducing infiltration),
and intercepting soil water (speeding the drainage of the soil mantle). Soil erosion in excess of
soil formation and compaction that lowers the ability of the soil to absorb water combine to
reduce the water storage capacity of the soil mantle. Severe erosion alters both soil depth and
quality, causing irreversible changes to the vegetation.
Quantity, quality, and timing of streamflow are the result of overall watershed processes. In the
absence of climate change, changes to these processes, and by association, to aquatic habitat,
reflect the cumulative effects of land use. A general effect of many land uses is to reduce the
resistance offered to water as it moves through the watershed, speeding runoff, increasing peak
flows and decreasing low flows. Examples of this include intensive timber harvest, road
building, grazing, and urbanization. An exception to this phenomenon occurs when a significant
portion of a watershed undergoes conversion from one plant community to another that is more
water-consumptive. An example of this is the conversion, through fire suppression, from an open
fire-tolerant forest stand to a densely stocked, closed canopy, fire-intolerant forest stand. In this
case, the entire range of flows produced by that land area might decline.
to juniper woodlands has resulted in formerly perennial streams converting to intermittent (i.e.,
seasonal) flow patterns.
Ecologically, land use represents a change to the disturbance regime of an ecosystem. Fire may
become much less frequent due to grazing, logging, and fire suppression. The magnitude and
frequency of flooding may change. The effects of droughts may become more severe due to soil
loss, soil compaction, and faster delivery of water to the stream system. Land sliding may
increase due to destabilization of slopes following logging and road building (See Figure 4.6).
Agriculture and urbanization represent major disruptions of native plant communities and
ecosystems; additionally, irrigation and other water uses are inevitably associated with
alterations to streamflow and groundwater.

Figure 4.6: Erosion initiated by poor road drainage.

Aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems evolve within a natural range of disturbance frequency and
intensity. Each system has some resistance to change and some resilience in recovering from
disturbance. If the effects of human activities substantially differ from those of the natural
disturbance regime, the ecosystem will be substantially altered. Ecosystem degradation is the
result of imposing disturbances that are beyond the system’s ability to resist or recover from.