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THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT NITROGEN LEVELS ON THE GROWTH AND


DEVELOPMENT ON GRAIN AMARANTH( Amaranthus cruentus L)

BY

MASVANHISE BESSY CHRISTINA

This project is submitted in partial fulfilment of the Bachelor of Science General Degree
in Natural Resources Management

DERPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY

MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY

NOVEMBER 2015
Abstract
Vegetable Amaranth (A. cruentus) is a promising C4 crop for semi- arid regions due to its
nutritive value, medicinal property and ornamental for beautifying gardens . It is widely grown
in the tropics and is one of the most important leafy vegetables in the lowlands of Africa, South
America and Asia. Little knowledge is known on its Nitrogen requirement, that is why this
experiment was conducted to fill in that gap. A field study was conducted in Nyanga which is a
high rainfall area receiving over 1000 mm/ annum. The vegetable was sown in the cropping
season of 2014/15 to determine the effect of different nitrogen fertilizer levels on (0, 50, 100,
150kg/ha and 200 kg/ha on the growth and yield parameters which were, days to 50 %
flowering, dry weight (kg/ha), seed yield (kg/ha) and fresh leaf weight (kg/ha). There was
significant difference (p<0.05) on the effects of N fertilizer levels on fresh leaf yield of
vegetable Amaranthus cruentus with the highest yield obtained at 150 and 200 kg/ha N. Mean
yield of 33562 kg/ha and 58359 kg/ha and the least 12060kg/ha obtained at 0 kg/ha. There was
significant difference (p<0.05) on the effects of N fertilizer levels on dry weight. The highest
dry weight of 32573 kg/ha and 45102 kg/ ha was achieved between 150 and 200 kg/ha N
respectively and the least dry weight of 12621 kg/ ha was obtained at 50 kg/ ha N. The highest
seed yield of 2300 kg/ha and 3500 kg/ ha N was also attained at 150 and 200 kg/ ha N
respectively. The least seed yield being obtained at 0 kg/ha with seed yield of 292 kg/ha. There
was no significant difference on days to 50% flowering due to different rates on N. From this
study it can be concluded that Amaranthus cruentus performed well at 200 kg/ha N as it gave
the highest yield in terms of fresh leaf weight. Thus farmers can use 200 kg/ha N to maximise
yield.

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Declaration

I hereby declare that this dissertation has been the result of my own original efforts and
investigations, and such work has not been presented elsewhere for any degree. All additional
sources of information have been acknowledged by means of references.

MASVANHISE BESSY CHRISTINA R13595M

Signed: …………………………….

Date…../……../2015

ii
Certification of Thesis Work
I, the undersigned, certify that Masvanhise Bessy Christina, a candidate for the Bachelor of
Science General Degree in Natural Resources Management has presented this dissertation
with the title:

THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT NITROGEN LEVELS ON THE GROWTH AND


DEVELOPMENT ON GRAIN AMARANTH (Amaranthus cruentus)

That the dissertation is acceptable in form and content, that satisfactory knowledge of the field
covered by the dissertation was demonstrated by the candidate through oral examination held
on / /2015.

SUPERVISOR: Mr T. Madanzi

SIGNATURE: …………………………

iii
Dedication
To my Husband Peter, My brother Patrick and Terrence, My Mother Margaret, My sisters
Bester, Betty, Belinda and Brenda, My children Tafara, Tapiwa, Taonga, Yoyo, Naman and
Gigi and my In laws Heskel and Tabani. God bless you!!

iv
Acknowledgements
To God, thank you for your love, mercy and unending love. To my supervisor, Mr T. Madhanzi,
thank you for your guidance, assistance and valuable input in this study, I would not have made
it without the seed you gave me and support. I would like to thank my friends Mrs Sithole, Fisher
Chabanga, Mr Gono, Mr Manjeru, Mrs Ncube, Mrs P Rwambiwa and Professor Masaka for their
support and friendship. You made this learning process worthwhile. I would like to thank
Agritex Nyanga District staff, Mr Diva Chaingeni Nyanga Experiment Research Station and
Africa University for soil sample results. Your valuable input and suggestions in this study is
greatly appreciated. To my family, thank you for your encouragement and prayers. Lastly
Brother Chapa P; thank you for financial support and for always being there for me. Your love
and support made this dream come true.

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Table of Contents

Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. i
Declaration ............................................................................................................................................ ii
Certification of Thesis Work ............................................................................................................... iii
Dedication ............................................................................................................................................ iv
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... ix
List of Appendices ................................................................................................................................ x
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction and Justification ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Aim ................................................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Specific objectives .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Hypotheses ...................................................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 5
2.0 Literature Review ........................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Origin and Distribution ................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Climate and Soil Requirements ................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Role of traditional vegetable ........................................................................................................ 6
2.3.2 Production Trends of A. cruentus ................................................................................................ 8
2.3.3 Choice of Variety ......................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.3.1 Seed Bed Preparation ................................................................................................................ 8
2.3.3.2 Planting ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.4 Water Requirements .................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.6 Insect Pest and Disease Control ................................................................................................. 10
2.3.7 Harvesting .................................................................................................................................. 11
2.3.8 Yield........................................................................................................................................... 11
2.3.9 Nutritional Benefits.................................................................................................................... 11
2.4 Uses ............................................................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Factors affecting amaranth production ......................................................................................... 12
2.6 Effects of Nitrogen on Amaranth .................................................................................................. 14

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CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................................................................... 16
3.0 Materials and Methods.................................................................................................................. 16
3.1Description of the study site .......................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Management of non-experimental variables ................................................................................. 17
3.3 Data collection .............................................................................................................................. 17
3.4 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 18
CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................................................... 19
4.1 Effects of nitrogen levels on the growth and yield of ................................................................... 20
4.1.1 Effects of different nitrogen levels on fresh leaf weight (kg/ha) ............................................... 20
4.2.1 Effects of different Nitrogen level of Amaranth in terms of seed yield (kg/ha) ........................ 21
4.2.2 Effects of different Nitrogen levels on dry weight of leaves (kg/ha). ....................................... 22
CHAPTER 5 ......................................................................................................................................... 23
5.0 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 23
5.1 Effect of Different Nitrogen levels on growth and yield of Amaranth in terms of fresh leaf weight
(kg/ha) ....................................................................................................................................... 23
5.2 Effect of different Nitrogen levels on days to 50 % flowering ..................................................... 23
5.3 Effect of different Nitrogen levels on seed yield kg/ha ................................................................ 24
5.4 Effect of different Nitrogen levels on dry weight kg/ha ............................................................... 25
CHAPTER 6 ......................................................................................................................................... 26
6.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 26
6.2 Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 26
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 27
APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................................... 31

vii
List of Figures
Figure 4.1: Effects of different nitrogen levels on 50% flowering Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.2: Effects of different nitrogen levels on seed yield (kg/ha) .......................................... 21

viii
List of Tables
Table 4.1: Effects of different Nitrogen levels on fresh leaf weight. ........................................... 20
Table 4.2: Effects of different nitrogen levels on dry weight (destructive method) three ............ 22

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List of Appendices
Appendix 1 : Fresh vegetable weight………………………………………...…………………xi

Appendix 2 : Days to 50% flowering……………………………………………………….....xiii

Appendix 3 : Seed yield………………………………….……………………………………xiii

Appendix 4 : Dry weight……………………………………..………………………………..xiv

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CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction and Justification

In Africa traditional leafy vegetables are a useful source of nutrients and vitamins for rural

population, as many nutritional studies have shown (Munzava, Daring, Guarino and Chweya,

1982). The indigenous vegetables like Amaranth therefore contribute immensely to the human

health and livestock feed and hence the need to promote its cultivation and utilization.

Vegetable Amaranth (Amaranthus spp) is widely grown in the tropics and is one of the most

important leafy vegetables in the lowlands of Africa, South America and Asia, (Schippers,

2000). Amaranth is the collective name for the domesticated species of the genus Amaranthus,

which has approximately 60 species (BOSTID, 1984) It is an annual, fast growing plant, and is

easily cultivated in gardens and fields. The vegetable when taken regularly can reduce trouble

of constipation, (Dey, 2000). Amaranth is a rich source of calcium, iron, and vitamins A and C

which is vital to cater for nutritional component of people which helps to reduce malnutrition

cases (Palada and Chang, 2003). The grains also compliment other cereal crops like maize

when it is pound for thick porridge and starch while the leaves are used as vegetables. The

indigenous vegetables like Amaranthus cruentus have been known to prove to be vital for

consumption in most rural communities in Africa, (Mposi, 1998). Studies carried out in Buhera

showed that the nutritional contribution of Amaranth to the community is very high

(Muchiwetu, Kasimuhuru, Benhura, Chiparura, Amina, Francis and Rarawira, 2009). The grain

has 12-17 % protein while the leaf has more lysine and more methionine than soybean meal.

The grain is high in fibre and low unsaturated fats, factors which contribute to its use in healthy

foods market (Putman, Oplinger, Doll, and Schulte, 1989). Based on the nutritive value of

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amaranth, the vegetable has the potential benefits of feeding programmes, as well as their

promotion as part of a composite diet for the vulnerable groups (Muchiwetu et al., 2009).

The indigenous vegetable has been underutilized and neglected by most indigenous farmers

despite its richness in nutrients (Mnzava et al., 1982). This is mainly due to lack of knowledge

on production of the vegetable. The cost of fertilizer has also gone beyond the reach of many

farmers to the extent that they priorities it for other major cash crops. Studies of the impact of

diverse fertilizer regimes are especially relevant to agriculture practiced by the poor in

developing countries where fertilization of crops is likely to be less organized and more

improvised in terms of the timing of applications and the type of fertilizer used (Turan and

Sevimli, (2000). Small scale farmers in developing countries can ill afford chemical fertilizers

so they often either use manure or plant without fertilization. Also information on the effect of

mineral fertilizer and cattle manure on the yield and quality of vegetable Amaranth is very

scanty (Turan and Sevimli, 2000). FAO, (2007) also pointed out that the Kobe Framework

recommends that promotion interventions of indigenous vegetables like Amaranth should

consider the process from production to consumption. Inorganic fertilizers are most preferable

since they supply nutrients quickly (Singh, 2004). It has been noted that Amaranth responds

differently to different Nitrogen rates (Elbehri, 1993). The production of indigenous vegetables

like A. cruentus still remains very low in spite of it being abundant in the wild state as a weed.

A. cruentus remains underutilized due to various constraints related to production, processing,

distribution and marketing as well as nutrient information. There are no significant studies that

have been done in Zimbabwe on fertilizer rates especially nitrogen rates on Amaranth under

rain fed conditions. There are problems of shortage of Nitrogen fertilizer in Zimbabwe and thus

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the need to find optimum rates to promote production of Amaranth as it can be grown in areas

where there is a shortage of fertilizer in Zimbabwe.

To grow this vegetable efficiently, it is important to know the effect of fertilization on its yield

because nitrogen has been found to be the most limiting factor (Elbehri, Putman and Schmitt,

1993). The studies carried out by Makus and Hettiarachchy , (1999) on effect of nitrogen

source and rate on vegetable Amaranth leaf blade mineral nutrients, pigments and oxalates

proved nitrogen sources resulted in greater plant height and yield. This also becomes part of

this study to find out the effects of different nitrogen rates on amaranth under rain fed

conditions. The vegetable responds differently to different nitrogen rates (Elbehri, 1993).

According to Mposi (1998), Amaranthus requires nitrogen of 112-135 kg per hectare. The

typical growth duration of Amaranth in Onyango et al (2008) on the influence of manure and

diammonium phosphate (DAP) mineral fertilizer on germination, leaf nitrogen content, nitrate

accumulation and yield of vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) in Kenya, the

highest yield was recorded in plots receiving 40 kg N ha−1 from DAP at eight weeks after

planting. Singh and Whitehead, (1996) noted that higher rates (45, 90 and 135 kg N ha−1) have

been successfully used to increase the production of vegetable Amaranth.

In Zimbabwe Amaranth grows in wild state with little or no attention at all. This study will

contribute significantly to the production and utilization of Amaranth which has remained a

reserve for rural folk despite the fact that it is essential in the sustenance of a balanced diet in

rural areas (FAO, 2002). The main aim of this study was to determine the effect of different

Nitrogen levels on Amaranth production.

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1.2 Aim

To determine the effects of different Nitrogen level on growth and yield of (A cruentus)

measuring plant fresh weight and dry matter, days to 50% flowering, vegetable fresh weight

(kg/ha) and seed yield (kg/ha)

1.2.1 Main objective

To investigate the effects of different Nitrogen levels on growth and yield potential of A.

cruentus.

1.3 Specific objectives

1. To determine the effects of different nitrogen levels on dry matter accumulation

and days to 50 % flowering of A. cruentus.

2. To investigate the effects of fresh vegetable leaf yield of A. cruentus.

3. To determine the effects of different Nitrogen levels on seed yield of A.

cruentus.

1.4 Hypotheses

1. H0: Different Nitrogen levels do not significantly affect growth and

development of Amaranth in terms of dry weight and vegetable leaf yield

(kg/ha).

2. H0: Nitrogen levels do not significantly affect growth and development

of Amaranth in terms of seed yield (kg/ha).

3. H0: Days to 50 % flowering is not significantly affected by different

Nitrogen levels.

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CHAPTER 2

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Origin and Distribution

Amaranth originated in America and is one of the oldest food crops in the world, with evidence

of its cultivation reaching back as far as 6700 BC. Amaranth consists of 60-70 species, several of

which are cultivated as leaf vegetables, grains or ornamental plants, while others are weeds. At

present, Amaranth is extensively grown as a green, leafy vegetable in many temperate and

Tropical regions. Meanwhile, Amaranth had spread around the world and had become

established for food use (the grain or leaves) in places such as Africa, India, Nepal and

Zimbabwe. other types create employment opportunities through leafy vegetables, cereals,

ornamentals landscape. (Trucco and Tranel, 2011)

2.2 Plant characteristics

African indigenous vegetables have a pivotal role in the success of the world health

organisation's initiative on promoting fruits and vegetable consumption (Fransca and Pablo,

2007). Amaranth is bushy, erect, branched annual herb which can grow up to 1 m. with thick

stalks, similar to native weedy species. Predominantly self-pollinated, plant flowers are purple,

red, pink, orange, or green. The stems are tinged reddish, erect, occasionally ascending,

branched, with linear marks on the surface, and hairless to moderately pubescent with

multicellular hairs. Leaves are simple, broadly tapering at the end to ovate or rhombic in shape

with the lower surface hairless or sparsely covered with hair along the margins and veins. The

flowers are Yellowish green, reddish, or purple, in auxiliary and terminal spikes, both sexes

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mixed throughout the spikes, bracts and bracteoles deltate-ovate, tipped with a long, pale brown

to reddish awn; lanceolate or oblong, apex acute, often awn-tipped, sometimes the apex of

female flowers blunt, only the midrib green; stigmas are 2 to 3. Fruit is small in size and dark

red, brown or black in colour. Seeds are black, sometimes shiny, compressed, 0, 8 to 1, 3 mm

long, faintly reticulate near the margins. The plants are indeterminate, but tend to have a

dominate seed head with fewer side branches than weedy amaranths. Many amaranths are

sensitive to day length, which is useful in developing varieties (Shroyer, Stegmeier and

Mikesell, Shroyer, 1990).

2.2.1 Climate and Soil Requirements

Amaranth seed requires high light and temperature to break dormancy. It highly tolerate arid

environments. Amaranth seeds need soil temperatures of between 18 °C and 25 °C to germinate

and an air temperature above25 °C ( Grubben, 2004) for optimum growth. Moisture stress, poor

nutrients, lower temperatures and shorter days will induce flowering with a subsequent reduction

in leaf yield. Frost damage is not of effect to Amaranth as the crop is planted with the onset of

rains, just like maize it flowers in April after planted in November. The vegetable prefers well

drained fertile soils in a sunny position (Ken, 2010).

2.2.1 Role of traditional vegetable

Leaf Amaranth is an indigenous vegetable used as a steamed vegetable in soups and stews. The

grain has some protein (12 % to 17 %) and is high in lysine, an amino acid that is low in other

grain crops like wheat, maize and millets. The grain is ground into flour. It is prepared as

porridge. The seed is used to make soft popcorns. Amaranth is high in fibre and low in saturated

fats. A. cruentus' stem is used in blending curry powders. Leaves are cooked as spinach. Seed

can be germinated into nutritious sprouts. Seeds can also be eaten as cereal. It is an exceptionally

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rich source of calcium, iron and vitamin C, a very rich source of potassium, vitamin A and

riboflavin, a rich source of niacin and an above-average source of protein. The ground floor is

used in making breads, noodles, pancakes, cereals. The leaves stem and head are high in protein

(15 to 24 % on a dry-matter basis). Grain amaranth, have 24 % crude protein and 79% in vitro

digestible dry matter. Vegetable amaranths, has (80 % moisture). In areas where corn silage

yields are low owing to moisture limitations, grain amaranth may become a suitable silage

alternative. There are many species of amaranth in cultivation. Other types create employment

opportunities through leafy vegetables, cereals, ornamentals landscape. (Trucco and Tranel,

2011)

A. cruentus is a tall, fast-growing herbaceous annual herb topped with greenish- yellowish

flowers. The plant can grow up to more than three metres high. It is a c4 plant that does well

under very hot temperatures. Amaranthus cruentus is the most commonly grown species in

countries like Sierra Leone. It has medicinal properties that are of paramount important to both

young and adult people. Its properties in high protein content help in marginal and impoverished

rural/ communal areas as it corrects for malnutrition.

African indigenous vegetables have a pivotal role in the success of the world Health

Organisation's initiative on promoting fruits and vegetable consumption (Fransca and Pablo,

2007). Cooked leaves provides Vitamin A, Vitamin C and Foliate, they complement for vitamins

such as thiamine, niacin and riboflavin and the dietary mineral including Calcium, Iron,

Magnesium, Phosphorus, Zinc, copper and Manganese.

Amaranthus species, sequester carbon dioxide in the stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and

alto sphere to attain clean atmosphere. It is part of flora that beautify the environment which is a

natural amenity to attract foreign currency for current generation and posterity.

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2.3.2 Production Trends of A. cruentus

In southern Africa indigenous vegetables are still considered valuable since imperial time. The

leaves of all Amaranthus species are edible and many appear regularly in the diets of several

societies. (Grubben 1976; Lackom 1991). Manicaland province in Zimbabwe is the highest

consumer of indigenous weeds like Amaranthus and spider plant- Black jack. Indigenous

vegetables are sold in rural and in urban markets during rainy season. Due to awareness,

improved cultivars is commercially available. In urban centres it is becoming increasingly

popular with demand frequently surpassing supply. Dried indigenous vegetables improve cross

border trade as peanut butter and dried vegetables are sold to neighbouring countries like

Botswana, Mozambique and Zambia.

2.3.3 Choice of Variety

Choice and preference depends on taste and preference among different tribes. Amaranthus

consist of 60-70 species. Some species are used in land- scaping, wedding gardens, around

hotels, vegetables, and seed production used in confectionary for production of flour, corn flecks

and popcorns. Therefore choice of variety is influenced by individual preference for leaf color

and taste (Palada and Sigh, 2003). In Africa most variety used as leaf vegetable is Amaranthus

cruentus and A. hybridas while A. spinosus is a thorn weed. A. tricolor is dominant in the South

and Southeast Asia. Amaranthus dubias is mostly found in the Caribbean Region.

Agronomic Practices

2.3.3.1 Seed Bed Preparation

Like other vegetable seeds, Amaranths seed is a small seed that requires fine tilth for easier of

germination. Soils with a wetness factor should be avoided as good aeration is a prerequisite for
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resumption of metabolic activity. Soils with shallow depth should be avoided as they prolong

wetness period if heavy rains are received which will lead to lodging, wet feet and result of

death. Boulder and rock out crop areas need to be avoided as they hinder germination. Crusting

or t-factor soils have a capping effect that will cement the soil thereby killing all the germinating

seeds. Acidic and Alkaline soils should be avoided as they render nutrients unavailable to the

seedlings. Primary tillage using a disc plough is followed by secondary tillage using spike

toothed harrow to break the clods.

2.3.3.2 Planting

Sowing can be done by hand, depth 1.5 cm, in raw spacing 15-45 cm apart, Plant population

3000-4000 plants per hectare. Sowing usually begins in November when rain fed, but commence

in the month of May if irrigation in form of sprinkler, flood and drip is used. Seeds are either

broad cast, sown in rows or sown on well prepared seed beds. For effective germination, the seed

is mixed with sand at a rate of 1g seed per 100 g sand. The seed is weak during germination,

therefore require covering with fine sand to avoid cementing if soils cap.

Planting stations are measured using Pythagoras theorem which result in dug holes having a

uniform pattern uniform diagonal, vertical and horizontal. Open furrow can be done using a

small hoe at a depth of 2 mm.

2.3.4 Water Requirements

Amaranth has a high rate of photosynthesis and excellent water use efficiency at high

temperatures and radiation intensity which render rapid growth and high water consumption. The

Indigenous vegetable uses six (6 mm) per day which is highly achieved as the crop has high

canopy cover which act as mulch to suppress weed and become correct measure of moisture

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conservation. Besides rain fed irrigation, Amaranth can do well under sprinkler and flood

irrigation, provided it is planted on raised beds to avoid wet fit caused by fungal diseases.

2.3.5 Weeding

Weed pests in Amaranth production account for between 20-70 % losses in crop yield. (Khan et

al. , 2004). Weeds mainly affect A. cruentus during the critical weed crop competition period

which range between 27 and 50 days. (Srivastava et al. , 2003). If weeds compete with the

desired crop, etiolating result as the crop try to compete for nutrients, sunlight and moisture.

Weeds harvest nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium causing yellowish on the desired crop during

the first 50 days. ( Nyanhete, 2005).

2.3.6 Insect Pest and Disease Control

Leaf miners, Cutworm, Aphids, Leaf roller, Beetles and Flea are major pests of A. cruentus. The

most problematic being Cutworm ( Agrotis spp). The dull grey caterpillar with a smooth skin

feeds at night severing A. cruentus vegetable just below soil level. It encircle the plant with its

body and cuts through the stem. One cutworm cuts several Amaranth plants in one night. The

problem is severe at during germination up to three weeks. Aphids, leaf minor, beetles and flea

are not of significance important. Leaf roller falls under Lepidoptera family also favour succulent

leaves of Amaranthus cruentus. Control spray with Malathion.

Control

Integrated weed management was practised starting with least expensive. Cultural practises, deep

ploughing and clean cultivation of the land six weeks before planting was done to remove the

weeds on which female cutworms lay eggs will reduce. Chlorpyrifos as a bait was used to

control cutworm.

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2.3.7 Harvesting

Amaranths is ready for harvest in 20–45 days after planting or sowing depending on variety and

plant type (Palada et al, 2003). Like other traditional African leafy vegetables, amaranths grow

quickly and thus can be harvested relatively soon after sowing (6–8 weeks) (Chweya and

Eyzaguirre, 1999). Plants may be harvested once or several times. Once-over harvesting is

adapted for short maturing and quick growing varieties such as A. tricolor. Whole plants are

pulled from soil with roots, washed and tied in bundles. With multiple harvests, young leaves

and tender shoots are picked at 2–3 week intervals. Eventually, the plants begin to flower and

develop fewer leaves. Frequent harvesting of leaves and shoots delays the onset of flowering

and thus prolongs the harvest period (Palada et al., 2003). Amaranth and other leafy vegetables

have large surface-to-volume ratio and lose water rapidly. To reduce water loss, harvest during

the cooler time of day, such as early morning or late afternoon. Picking the leaves stimulates

growth (Moss 1988). The seed is ready for harvesting around March-April.

2.3.8 Yield

Vegetable yield has been reported to reach as high as 60 tonnes per hectare. Elbehri et al (1993)

obtained yield response with Nitrogen application of 180 kg/ ha and yield increased from 1094

kg/ ha without N application 1428 kg/ ha with N applied at 190 kg/ ha.

2.3.9 Nutritional Benefits

Lysine is an essential amino acid a human body cannot make. This protein that is very expensive

when derived from meat, milk, and fish can be cheaply derived from A. cruentus a very cheap

vegetable which can be grown under rain fed conditions with both organic and inorganic

fertilizers. Protein has a high content of sulphur containing amino acids that is methionine, lysine

and systeine (Grubben, 2004). Protein a major component required by body, is cheaply derived
11
from Amaranhus species, which make this essential nutrient accessed by a poor resource farmer

in a rural set up. The grain has 12 to 17 % protein and is high in lysine, an essential amino acid in

which cereal crops are low (Putnam, Oplinger, Doll, and Schulte, 1989).

2.4 Uses

A. cruentus had manifold medicinal uses, in cleansing intestines, diuretic properties,

remineralisation, and ant-diarrheal and anti-anaemic. It can be grown as a pot herbs

Saver,(1959) Dried Amaranth is ground and prepared in peanut butter to produce a relish dish

saved with Sadza in Zimbabwe. A. cruentus can be used as fodder to feed livestock. It can be

used to make silage fed to dairy cattle. In Ghana the water from macerated A.cruentus plants is

used as a wash to treat pains and limbs. The seeds are used as cereal Oke, (1983). Senegalese use

boiled roots as a laxative for infants. In Gabon heated leaves of A. cruentus were used on

tumours. Sudanese burn A. cruentus plant to produce ash that is used as a wound dress. Essential

amino acid found in A. cruentus give it the properties to polymerise, novel based properties,

chirality's (Four different groups attached to the central carbon). Amino acids derived from

A.cruentus function in synthesis of amino acids and Nitrogen containing compounds

neurotransmitters, nucleotides, and nitrogenous bases. These amino acids can be converted into

energy if the body is exhausted of lipid and carbohydrates.

2.5 Factors affecting amaranth production

According to research, organic production of grain Amaranth is possible in soils with adequate

moisture for provision of plant available N. Amaranth seed is quite small and range from 0.7 to

0.9 g/ 1000 seeds, which lead to poor and non-uniform seedling establishment. (Brenner et al.,

Putnam, 1990). The problem of variability in plant height and seed head size make it difficult to

harvest using combine harvester. High rainfall tropical areas have high problem of lodging that

12
hinder cultural practices like Fertiliser application, chemical sprays, weeding and harvesting

operations. The C:N ratio of compost and manure may be altered during transportation and

storage, depending on whether the conditions are aerobic or anaerobic (Murwira et al., 1994).

Manures with high NH4+,N content, such as poultry manure, maintain high levels of ammonia

volatilization, which are purportedly between 9 and 44% (Nahm, 2005), displaying a strong

inverse correlation between ammonia losses and C:N ratio (Murwira et al., 1994; Moore et al.,

1995). Nitrogen losses through NH4+–N volatilization will increase C:N ratios and ultimately

N availability, but these losses tend to be greatest under dry, windy climatic conditions which

facilitate evaporation and volatilization (Moore et al., 1995). Similarly, most studies

corroborate that poultry manure contains high levels of inorganic N as ammonium (NH4+–N)

prior to handling and storage (Davis et al. 2002; Moore et al. 1995; Chae and Tabatabai, 1986).

For cattle manure, ammonium levels are generally lower than for poultry manure; however,

these values depend on the feeding regimen and, more specifically, whether the animals are

beef or dairy cattle. Research conducted by Burger and Venterea (2007) indicated that, while

NH4+–N content of manure from beef cattle may be as low as 5 mg kg-1, NH4+,N levels

reported for dairy cows (64 mg kg-1) were higher than those found for turkeys (50 mg kg-1).

Similarly, a study comparing N mineralization from various manures and composts by Gale et

al. (2006) demonstrated levels ranging from 49.3 to 82.7 mg kg-1 for uncomposted broiler

manure and 6.9 to 24.0 mg kg-1 for solid dairy manure. The same study corroborated lower

quantities of solid dairy manure. Countries in developing countries use organic manure, but the

challenges they face are of poor nitrogen levels which will lead to low Amaranth production.

13
Elevated price of Nitrogen fertilizers made other farmers to shun planting Amaranth vegetable.

Lack of training on the importance of Nitrogen as the essential element of Amino acids, proteins

and its role in photosynthesis, carbohydrate use and metabolic processes through various plant

secondary compounds (Brady and Weill 1999) result in complete ignorance toward A cruentus

farming.

Low of diminishing returns reveals that the more fertilisers are applied in excess, the yield will

decline, and therefore effective farming is after soil analysis to avoid over application which will

lead to ground water pollution.

Low production is also as a result of nutrient budget of Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in

African soils. (Esilaba et al., 2005, and Smaling et al. (1997) Low soil fertility is the major

constraint to sustainable development throughout sub Saharan Africa (SSA) (Nyombi et al.,

2006)

2.6 Effects of Nitrogen on Amaranth

Nitrogen is an important component of proteins. Up to 65% of leaf protein occurs in the

chloroplasts, 50% of which is RUBISCO. Nitrogen levels may become very low enough to

impair photosynthesis through mobilisation and export of Nitrogen from leaves to other organs

of the plant. In Amaranthus cruentus Nitrogen uptake is reduced after anthesis and Nitrogen is

exported from leaves towards flowering to meet the demands of growing seeds, reducing net

photosynthesis. Nitrogen is necessary for protein synthesis. Amaranthus is a C4 plant that require

high nitrogen levels. If nutrients are in short supply they are translocated from older leaves to the

younger leaves. Nitrogen, Manganese and iron are constituents of chlorophyll and if they are in

short supply chlorophyll will not form and thus reduce carbon exchange rate (CER).

Remobilization of nutrients to the sinks will lead to necrosis and chlorosis of lower leaves, which

14
will predispose the plant to Necrotic fungi (blight and rotting fungi), which can survive on

decaying and dead host tissue. Bacterial infections cause structural damages to chloroplasts.

Toxins produced by bacteria inhibit photosynthesis.

15
CHAPTER 3

3.0 Materials and Methods

3.1Description of the study site

The study was conducted from 17/ November/2014 through to March 2015, In Nyanga South A,

Ward 24, during the cropping season 2014/2015. The district lies in Natural Farming Region 1

and about 141 km from Harare. Nyanga lies between longitude and 32.74 and latitude 18.21 and

2000 m above sea level with an annual rainfall of 1000 mm and mean temperature of 18ºC

3.2 Experimental Design

The experimental was laid out at a Randomised Complete Block Design with five treatments (0,

50, 100, 150, 200 kg N/ha and replicated three times( Table 3.1.)

Table 3.1:- Experimental Treatments

Treatment Number Amount of Ammonium

Nitrate in Treatment (kg/ha)

1 0

2 150

3 50

4 200

5 150

16
3.2 Management of non-experimental variables

The study was established on land that had never been cultivated before. The land being virgin,

labour was employed to dig out grass, Primary tillage followed by disking and levelling was

done before pegging of plots. The plot area was 17.5 m x9 m to give a net area of 157.5 m2. The

pathway distance was 0.5 m. Each block was divided into five equal plots which were 3 x 3.5 =

10.5 m2 with spacing of 0.4 m and 0.4 m, respectively. The seeds were sown on 17/11/14. For

good seed spacing during planting, seed was mixed with fine sand. Planting depth was 1.0 cm

deep. Thinning was done three weeks after planting, to reduce population and competition for

water, nutrient and nutrient. Thinning is done to avoid etiolating and the fact that A. cruentus is a

weak emerger, thinning renders vigour. The experiment was rain fed, with no supplementary

irrigation. Weeding was done with a hoe uniformly throughout the experiment plot in a day. First

fertilizer application was done three weeks after planting, with the main source of N being

Ammonium Nitrate (34 % N).

3.3 Data collection

First vegetable harvest commence 15 weeks after planting, harvesting can be earlier than that if

the farmer is uprooting the whole plant. Fresh side shoots can be harvestable on a daily basis, but

an interval of weekly harvesting of side shoots leaving leaves for photosynthesis was done. The

data were recorded on 66 plants in each replication for vegetable weight in (kg/ha). On dry

matter the weight was measured in (kg/ha). A digital and manual scale was used. On days to 50

% flowering , days were physically counted. On seed, yield was measured in (kg/ha).

17
3.4 Data Analysis

An Analysis of Variance was carried out as per harvest time on the parameters of growth in

terms of fresh leaf weight (kg), Fresh and dry weight (kg), seed yield (kg) and days to 50 %

flowering using the Genstat 14th Version. Fisher's least significant difference (LSD) test was

used to identify significant differences among treatment means (P<0.05).

18
CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

350

300

250

Oct-14
200
Rainfall mm

Nov-14
Dec-14
150
Jan-15
Feb-15
100
Mar-15
Apr-15
50

0
Oct-14 Nov-14 Dec-14 Jan-15 Feb-15 Mar-15 Apr-15
Season 2014/15

Fig 4.0 Rainfall for 2014/2015 season.

Rainfall was evenly distributed during the trial project, with highest rainfall received in the

month of December and January which gives A. cruentus a long time of vegetable harvest.

19
4.1 Effects of nitrogen levels on the growth and yield of

A. cruentus

4.1.1 Effects of different nitrogen levels on fresh leaf weight (kg/ha)

There was an interaction (p<0.05) between leaf vegetable yield and different Nitrogen fertilizer

levels. Highest vegetables yield were obtained at 200 kg/ ha with a mean of 58359 kg/ha which

is statistically different to the control and other treatments. The lowest vegetable weight was

obtained at 50 kg/ ha with a mean of 23670 kg/ha, though it is significantly different from the

control.

Table 4. 1 Effects of different Nitrogen levels on fresh leaf weight (kg/ha)

Nitrogen Rate (kg N /ha) Total leaf vegetable yield (kg/ha)

0 12060a

50 23670b

100 30686c

150 33562c

200 58359d

Grand mean 31667

Significance <.001

L.S.D.(o.o5) 4294.0

C.V.% 7.2

20
4.1.2 Days to 50% Flowering

There was no significant difference (p>0.05) between different Nitrogen levels on the days to 50

% flowering, except on treatment with 0 kg/ha which reached 50 % earlier.

4.2.1 Effects of different Nitrogen level of Amaranth in terms of seed yield (kg/ha)

There was significant difference (p<0.05) between different Nitrogen levels on seed yield.

Highest seed weight were obtained at 200 kg/ha N with a yield of 3500 kg/ha, while the lowest

was at 0 kg ha with 292 kg/sha.

4000

3500

3000

2500
0kg/ha
Seed yield (kg/ha) 2000 50kg/ha
100kg/ha
1500
150kg/ha
1000 200kg/ha

500

0
0kg/ha 50kg/ha 100kg/ha 150kg/ha 200kg/ha
Nitrogen fertilizer (kg/ha)

Figure 4. 1 Effects of different nitrogen levels on seed yield (kg/ha)

21
4.2.2 Effects of different Nitrogen levels on dry weight of leaves (kg/ha).

There was significant difference (P<0.05) by use of different Nitrogen levels. The highest dry

weight was obtained on 200 kg ha N, with the mean of 45102 kg/ha, which is statistically

different to the control and other means and the lowest among the treatments was obtained at 50

kg/ha with the mean of 18929 though it was significantly different to the control.

Table 4. 2 Effects of different nitrogen levels on dry weight (kg/ha).

Nitrogen Rate (kg N /ha) Total Dry Weight (kg/ha)

0 12621a

50 18929b

100 24080c

150 32573d

200 45102e

Grand mean 26661

Significance <.001

L.S.D.(o.o5) 4378.0

C.V.% 8.7

22
CHAPTER 5

5.0 Discussion

5.1 Effect of Different Nitrogen levels on growth and yield of Amaranth in terms of

fresh leaf weight (kg/ha)

The results of this study showed that there was significant effect (p<0.05) on Nitrogen fertilizer

level on fresh weight. This was evidently shown by the fact that the highest values were

observed in plants fertilised with 150 and 200 kg/ha N with mean yield of 33562 kg/ha and

58339 kg/ha respectively while the lowest was at 0 kg/ ha N with mean yield 0f 12060 kg/ha.

This is also in line with the observation made by Elbehri et al (1993) who obtained yield

response with Nitrogen application of 180 kg/ha and yields increased from 1094 kg/ha without

N application to 1428 kg/ ha with N applied at 190 kg/ha. This shows that Nitrogen contributes

greatly to yield increase as indicated by Ayadele (1998) in his study to compare two species of

Amaranth that is A. hybridas and A. hypochondriacs in response to N fertilization. He used four

rates of Nitrogen. The results showed that, number of leaves produces, fresh and dry weights of

plants increased with the increased rate of Nitrogen application. Nitrogen contribute to growth

and development of Amaranth crop. It is a component of amino acids, proteins, nucleotides,

chlorophyll and coenzymes which is vital for growth which results in higher yield advantage as

shown by this study.

5.2 Effect of different Nitrogen levels on days to 50 % flowering

The time taken to reach 50 % flowering showed no significant difference at all as the range of

flowering rate could not be linked to specific N fertilizer level. Plants that received lower N

levels like 0 kg/ha N reached 50 % flowering earlier than those with higher rates. This was

23
attributed to the contribution of inherent soil fertility which also supplied other nutrients like

phosphorus, potassium, and micro nutrients to influence flowering.

5.3 Effect of different Nitrogen levels on seed yield kg/ha

There was a marked significant difference (p<0.05) on the effect of differing levels of nitrogen on

the seed yield with the highest seed yield recorded on200 kg/ha which had 3390 kg/ha and of

nitrogen in the soil. All vital processes in plants are associated with protein of which nitrogen is

an essential constituent hence nitrogen occupies a conspicuous place in plant metabolism (Ali et

al., 2011). They went on to add that nitrogen application in the form of chemical fertilizer is

essential in order to get more crop production. Application of nitrogenous fertilizer improves

various crop parameters such as grain weight and grain yield (Warraich et al., 2002; Ali et al.,

2011). The management of nitrogen, and other essential nutrients, is part of a balanced fertility

programme. This can lead to increased efficiency and profitability for Amaranth growers because

plants absorb N in the highest amounts of any essential nutrient since it is a C4 plant, Therefore N

is needed in large quantities and must be in balance with other nutrients in order for the crop to

achieve its maximum yield potential.

There is no other nutrient as important as nitrogen (N) to attain high yields of Amaranth with

acceptable grain protein (Orloff et.al, 2012). As nitrogen is an essential constituent of structural

and storage proteins, simple amino compounds, enzymes and chlorophyll, young leaves should be

supplied with nitrogen until they reach maturity. Chlorophyll is associated with the production of

simple sugars from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. High concentrations of chlorophyll combined

with nitrogen utilize the sunlight as an energy source to carry out essential plant functions

24
including nutrient uptake. The sugars produced play an important role in stimulating plant growth

and development along with higher protein content in the grain. Chlorosis of the plant leaves

which will start in the oldest leaves, and then proceed to develop on younger leaves if the

deficiency continues in cases of nitrogen deficiency. Nitrogen deficient plants are typically shorter

and or stunted and grow slower than plants with sufficient nitrogen. Nitrogen deficiency in

Amaranth tends to reduce the amount of protein in the seed.

5.4 Effect of different Nitrogen levels on dry weight kg/ha

There was significant difference (p<0.05) between the Nitrogen levels on dry weight, with the

highest dry weight attained at higher levels of 150 and 200 kg /ha N, with mean yield of 32573

kg/ha kg/ ha and 45102 kg/ha respectively while the lowest was at 0 kg/ ha with mean yield of

12621 kg/ha. This study were in accordance with the findings of Nyankanga et al. (2012) who,

in a similar study, obtained the highest dry matter in grain Amaranth in Western Kenya with the

application 100 kg N/ ha inorganic fertilizer, and a host of others who have also reported

significant increase in plant dry matter accumulation per plant with corresponding increase in

the fertility level up to a certain level (Kushwaha, 2001; Kalmani et al., 2002; Olaniyi and

Ajibola, 2008).

25
CHAPTER 6

6.1 Conclusion

The results of this study showed that seed , leaf vegetable and dry weight can be obtained with

higher N fertilizers of 200 kg/ ha. This gives a farmer high chances of maximising income from

sale of fresh vegetable leaf at the same time meeting their nutritional needs. There was also

effect on 50 % flowering and dry weight. It was therefore evident from this study that the

optimum N level for high performance of A. cruentus is 200 kg/ha.

6.2 Recommendations

Based on the results from this research, 200 kg/ha N is recommended fertilizer to increase seed

yield, fresh leaf vegetables and dry weight. However I would advise further research to be

carried out on integrating organic and inorganic manure since Nyanga is a high rainfall area.

Further research need to be carried out in different Natural regions on organoleptic taste and

Nitrogen levels that suit Amaranth growth.

26
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30
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Fresh Vegetable Weight

Analysis of Variance

Variate: Total_veg_yld_kg_ha

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Block stratum 2 3.014E+07 1.507E+07 2.90

Block.*Units* stratum
Treat 4 3.496E+09 8.740E+08 168.04 <.001
Residual 8 4.161E+07 5.201E+06

Total 14 3.568E+09

Appendix 2: Days to 50% Flowering


Analysis of Variance
Variate: Days_to_50%_flowering

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Block stratum 2 0.000 0.000

Block.*Units* stratum
Treat 4 614.400 153.600
Residual 8 0.000 0.000

Total 14 614.400

31
Appendix 3: Seed Yield
Analysis of Variance
Variate: Seed_Yield_Ha

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Block stratum 2 757587. 378794. 9.19

Block.*Units* stratum
Treat 4 18743014. 4685753. 113.66 <.001
Residual 8 329820. 41228.

Total 14 19830421.

Appendix 4: Destruction method to measure Dry Weight


Analysis of Variance
Variate: TOTAL_DMW

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Block stratum 2 1.808E+07 9.040E+06 1.67

Block.*Units* stratum
Treat 4 1.916E+09 4.790E+08 88.59 <.001
Residual 8 4.325E+07 5.407E+06

Total 14 1.977E+09

32

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