Jurnal 10
Jurnal 10
Jurnal 10
BY
This project is submitted in partial fulfilment of the Bachelor of Science General Degree
in Natural Resources Management
DERPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
NOVEMBER 2015
Abstract
Vegetable Amaranth (A. cruentus) is a promising C4 crop for semi- arid regions due to its
nutritive value, medicinal property and ornamental for beautifying gardens . It is widely grown
in the tropics and is one of the most important leafy vegetables in the lowlands of Africa, South
America and Asia. Little knowledge is known on its Nitrogen requirement, that is why this
experiment was conducted to fill in that gap. A field study was conducted in Nyanga which is a
high rainfall area receiving over 1000 mm/ annum. The vegetable was sown in the cropping
season of 2014/15 to determine the effect of different nitrogen fertilizer levels on (0, 50, 100,
150kg/ha and 200 kg/ha on the growth and yield parameters which were, days to 50 %
flowering, dry weight (kg/ha), seed yield (kg/ha) and fresh leaf weight (kg/ha). There was
significant difference (p<0.05) on the effects of N fertilizer levels on fresh leaf yield of
vegetable Amaranthus cruentus with the highest yield obtained at 150 and 200 kg/ha N. Mean
yield of 33562 kg/ha and 58359 kg/ha and the least 12060kg/ha obtained at 0 kg/ha. There was
significant difference (p<0.05) on the effects of N fertilizer levels on dry weight. The highest
dry weight of 32573 kg/ha and 45102 kg/ ha was achieved between 150 and 200 kg/ha N
respectively and the least dry weight of 12621 kg/ ha was obtained at 50 kg/ ha N. The highest
seed yield of 2300 kg/ha and 3500 kg/ ha N was also attained at 150 and 200 kg/ ha N
respectively. The least seed yield being obtained at 0 kg/ha with seed yield of 292 kg/ha. There
was no significant difference on days to 50% flowering due to different rates on N. From this
study it can be concluded that Amaranthus cruentus performed well at 200 kg/ha N as it gave
the highest yield in terms of fresh leaf weight. Thus farmers can use 200 kg/ha N to maximise
yield.
i
Declaration
I hereby declare that this dissertation has been the result of my own original efforts and
investigations, and such work has not been presented elsewhere for any degree. All additional
sources of information have been acknowledged by means of references.
Signed: …………………………….
Date…../……../2015
ii
Certification of Thesis Work
I, the undersigned, certify that Masvanhise Bessy Christina, a candidate for the Bachelor of
Science General Degree in Natural Resources Management has presented this dissertation
with the title:
That the dissertation is acceptable in form and content, that satisfactory knowledge of the field
covered by the dissertation was demonstrated by the candidate through oral examination held
on / /2015.
SUPERVISOR: Mr T. Madanzi
SIGNATURE: …………………………
iii
Dedication
To my Husband Peter, My brother Patrick and Terrence, My Mother Margaret, My sisters
Bester, Betty, Belinda and Brenda, My children Tafara, Tapiwa, Taonga, Yoyo, Naman and
Gigi and my In laws Heskel and Tabani. God bless you!!
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Acknowledgements
To God, thank you for your love, mercy and unending love. To my supervisor, Mr T. Madhanzi,
thank you for your guidance, assistance and valuable input in this study, I would not have made
it without the seed you gave me and support. I would like to thank my friends Mrs Sithole, Fisher
Chabanga, Mr Gono, Mr Manjeru, Mrs Ncube, Mrs P Rwambiwa and Professor Masaka for their
support and friendship. You made this learning process worthwhile. I would like to thank
Agritex Nyanga District staff, Mr Diva Chaingeni Nyanga Experiment Research Station and
Africa University for soil sample results. Your valuable input and suggestions in this study is
greatly appreciated. To my family, thank you for your encouragement and prayers. Lastly
Brother Chapa P; thank you for financial support and for always being there for me. Your love
and support made this dream come true.
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Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. i
Declaration ............................................................................................................................................ ii
Certification of Thesis Work ............................................................................................................... iii
Dedication ............................................................................................................................................ iv
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... ix
List of Appendices ................................................................................................................................ x
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction and Justification ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Aim ................................................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Specific objectives .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Hypotheses ...................................................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 5
2.0 Literature Review ........................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Origin and Distribution ................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Climate and Soil Requirements ................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Role of traditional vegetable ........................................................................................................ 6
2.3.2 Production Trends of A. cruentus ................................................................................................ 8
2.3.3 Choice of Variety ......................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.3.1 Seed Bed Preparation ................................................................................................................ 8
2.3.3.2 Planting ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.4 Water Requirements .................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.6 Insect Pest and Disease Control ................................................................................................. 10
2.3.7 Harvesting .................................................................................................................................. 11
2.3.8 Yield........................................................................................................................................... 11
2.3.9 Nutritional Benefits.................................................................................................................... 11
2.4 Uses ............................................................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Factors affecting amaranth production ......................................................................................... 12
2.6 Effects of Nitrogen on Amaranth .................................................................................................. 14
vi
CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................................................................... 16
3.0 Materials and Methods.................................................................................................................. 16
3.1Description of the study site .......................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Management of non-experimental variables ................................................................................. 17
3.3 Data collection .............................................................................................................................. 17
3.4 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 18
CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................................................... 19
4.1 Effects of nitrogen levels on the growth and yield of ................................................................... 20
4.1.1 Effects of different nitrogen levels on fresh leaf weight (kg/ha) ............................................... 20
4.2.1 Effects of different Nitrogen level of Amaranth in terms of seed yield (kg/ha) ........................ 21
4.2.2 Effects of different Nitrogen levels on dry weight of leaves (kg/ha). ....................................... 22
CHAPTER 5 ......................................................................................................................................... 23
5.0 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 23
5.1 Effect of Different Nitrogen levels on growth and yield of Amaranth in terms of fresh leaf weight
(kg/ha) ....................................................................................................................................... 23
5.2 Effect of different Nitrogen levels on days to 50 % flowering ..................................................... 23
5.3 Effect of different Nitrogen levels on seed yield kg/ha ................................................................ 24
5.4 Effect of different Nitrogen levels on dry weight kg/ha ............................................................... 25
CHAPTER 6 ......................................................................................................................................... 26
6.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 26
6.2 Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 26
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 27
APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................................... 31
vii
List of Figures
Figure 4.1: Effects of different nitrogen levels on 50% flowering Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.2: Effects of different nitrogen levels on seed yield (kg/ha) .......................................... 21
viii
List of Tables
Table 4.1: Effects of different Nitrogen levels on fresh leaf weight. ........................................... 20
Table 4.2: Effects of different nitrogen levels on dry weight (destructive method) three ............ 22
ix
List of Appendices
Appendix 1 : Fresh vegetable weight………………………………………...…………………xi
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CHAPTER 1
In Africa traditional leafy vegetables are a useful source of nutrients and vitamins for rural
population, as many nutritional studies have shown (Munzava, Daring, Guarino and Chweya,
1982). The indigenous vegetables like Amaranth therefore contribute immensely to the human
health and livestock feed and hence the need to promote its cultivation and utilization.
Vegetable Amaranth (Amaranthus spp) is widely grown in the tropics and is one of the most
important leafy vegetables in the lowlands of Africa, South America and Asia, (Schippers,
2000). Amaranth is the collective name for the domesticated species of the genus Amaranthus,
which has approximately 60 species (BOSTID, 1984) It is an annual, fast growing plant, and is
easily cultivated in gardens and fields. The vegetable when taken regularly can reduce trouble
of constipation, (Dey, 2000). Amaranth is a rich source of calcium, iron, and vitamins A and C
which is vital to cater for nutritional component of people which helps to reduce malnutrition
cases (Palada and Chang, 2003). The grains also compliment other cereal crops like maize
when it is pound for thick porridge and starch while the leaves are used as vegetables. The
indigenous vegetables like Amaranthus cruentus have been known to prove to be vital for
consumption in most rural communities in Africa, (Mposi, 1998). Studies carried out in Buhera
showed that the nutritional contribution of Amaranth to the community is very high
(Muchiwetu, Kasimuhuru, Benhura, Chiparura, Amina, Francis and Rarawira, 2009). The grain
has 12-17 % protein while the leaf has more lysine and more methionine than soybean meal.
The grain is high in fibre and low unsaturated fats, factors which contribute to its use in healthy
foods market (Putman, Oplinger, Doll, and Schulte, 1989). Based on the nutritive value of
1
amaranth, the vegetable has the potential benefits of feeding programmes, as well as their
promotion as part of a composite diet for the vulnerable groups (Muchiwetu et al., 2009).
The indigenous vegetable has been underutilized and neglected by most indigenous farmers
despite its richness in nutrients (Mnzava et al., 1982). This is mainly due to lack of knowledge
on production of the vegetable. The cost of fertilizer has also gone beyond the reach of many
farmers to the extent that they priorities it for other major cash crops. Studies of the impact of
diverse fertilizer regimes are especially relevant to agriculture practiced by the poor in
developing countries where fertilization of crops is likely to be less organized and more
improvised in terms of the timing of applications and the type of fertilizer used (Turan and
Sevimli, (2000). Small scale farmers in developing countries can ill afford chemical fertilizers
so they often either use manure or plant without fertilization. Also information on the effect of
mineral fertilizer and cattle manure on the yield and quality of vegetable Amaranth is very
scanty (Turan and Sevimli, 2000). FAO, (2007) also pointed out that the Kobe Framework
consider the process from production to consumption. Inorganic fertilizers are most preferable
since they supply nutrients quickly (Singh, 2004). It has been noted that Amaranth responds
differently to different Nitrogen rates (Elbehri, 1993). The production of indigenous vegetables
like A. cruentus still remains very low in spite of it being abundant in the wild state as a weed.
distribution and marketing as well as nutrient information. There are no significant studies that
have been done in Zimbabwe on fertilizer rates especially nitrogen rates on Amaranth under
rain fed conditions. There are problems of shortage of Nitrogen fertilizer in Zimbabwe and thus
2
the need to find optimum rates to promote production of Amaranth as it can be grown in areas
To grow this vegetable efficiently, it is important to know the effect of fertilization on its yield
because nitrogen has been found to be the most limiting factor (Elbehri, Putman and Schmitt,
1993). The studies carried out by Makus and Hettiarachchy , (1999) on effect of nitrogen
source and rate on vegetable Amaranth leaf blade mineral nutrients, pigments and oxalates
proved nitrogen sources resulted in greater plant height and yield. This also becomes part of
this study to find out the effects of different nitrogen rates on amaranth under rain fed
conditions. The vegetable responds differently to different nitrogen rates (Elbehri, 1993).
According to Mposi (1998), Amaranthus requires nitrogen of 112-135 kg per hectare. The
typical growth duration of Amaranth in Onyango et al (2008) on the influence of manure and
diammonium phosphate (DAP) mineral fertilizer on germination, leaf nitrogen content, nitrate
highest yield was recorded in plots receiving 40 kg N ha−1 from DAP at eight weeks after
planting. Singh and Whitehead, (1996) noted that higher rates (45, 90 and 135 kg N ha−1) have
In Zimbabwe Amaranth grows in wild state with little or no attention at all. This study will
contribute significantly to the production and utilization of Amaranth which has remained a
reserve for rural folk despite the fact that it is essential in the sustenance of a balanced diet in
rural areas (FAO, 2002). The main aim of this study was to determine the effect of different
3
1.2 Aim
To determine the effects of different Nitrogen level on growth and yield of (A cruentus)
measuring plant fresh weight and dry matter, days to 50% flowering, vegetable fresh weight
To investigate the effects of different Nitrogen levels on growth and yield potential of A.
cruentus.
cruentus.
1.4 Hypotheses
(kg/ha).
Nitrogen levels.
4
CHAPTER 2
Amaranth originated in America and is one of the oldest food crops in the world, with evidence
of its cultivation reaching back as far as 6700 BC. Amaranth consists of 60-70 species, several of
which are cultivated as leaf vegetables, grains or ornamental plants, while others are weeds. At
present, Amaranth is extensively grown as a green, leafy vegetable in many temperate and
Tropical regions. Meanwhile, Amaranth had spread around the world and had become
established for food use (the grain or leaves) in places such as Africa, India, Nepal and
Zimbabwe. other types create employment opportunities through leafy vegetables, cereals,
African indigenous vegetables have a pivotal role in the success of the world health
organisation's initiative on promoting fruits and vegetable consumption (Fransca and Pablo,
2007). Amaranth is bushy, erect, branched annual herb which can grow up to 1 m. with thick
stalks, similar to native weedy species. Predominantly self-pollinated, plant flowers are purple,
red, pink, orange, or green. The stems are tinged reddish, erect, occasionally ascending,
branched, with linear marks on the surface, and hairless to moderately pubescent with
multicellular hairs. Leaves are simple, broadly tapering at the end to ovate or rhombic in shape
with the lower surface hairless or sparsely covered with hair along the margins and veins. The
flowers are Yellowish green, reddish, or purple, in auxiliary and terminal spikes, both sexes
5
mixed throughout the spikes, bracts and bracteoles deltate-ovate, tipped with a long, pale brown
to reddish awn; lanceolate or oblong, apex acute, often awn-tipped, sometimes the apex of
female flowers blunt, only the midrib green; stigmas are 2 to 3. Fruit is small in size and dark
red, brown or black in colour. Seeds are black, sometimes shiny, compressed, 0, 8 to 1, 3 mm
long, faintly reticulate near the margins. The plants are indeterminate, but tend to have a
dominate seed head with fewer side branches than weedy amaranths. Many amaranths are
sensitive to day length, which is useful in developing varieties (Shroyer, Stegmeier and
Amaranth seed requires high light and temperature to break dormancy. It highly tolerate arid
and an air temperature above25 °C ( Grubben, 2004) for optimum growth. Moisture stress, poor
nutrients, lower temperatures and shorter days will induce flowering with a subsequent reduction
in leaf yield. Frost damage is not of effect to Amaranth as the crop is planted with the onset of
rains, just like maize it flowers in April after planted in November. The vegetable prefers well
Leaf Amaranth is an indigenous vegetable used as a steamed vegetable in soups and stews. The
grain has some protein (12 % to 17 %) and is high in lysine, an amino acid that is low in other
grain crops like wheat, maize and millets. The grain is ground into flour. It is prepared as
porridge. The seed is used to make soft popcorns. Amaranth is high in fibre and low in saturated
fats. A. cruentus' stem is used in blending curry powders. Leaves are cooked as spinach. Seed
can be germinated into nutritious sprouts. Seeds can also be eaten as cereal. It is an exceptionally
6
rich source of calcium, iron and vitamin C, a very rich source of potassium, vitamin A and
riboflavin, a rich source of niacin and an above-average source of protein. The ground floor is
used in making breads, noodles, pancakes, cereals. The leaves stem and head are high in protein
(15 to 24 % on a dry-matter basis). Grain amaranth, have 24 % crude protein and 79% in vitro
digestible dry matter. Vegetable amaranths, has (80 % moisture). In areas where corn silage
yields are low owing to moisture limitations, grain amaranth may become a suitable silage
alternative. There are many species of amaranth in cultivation. Other types create employment
opportunities through leafy vegetables, cereals, ornamentals landscape. (Trucco and Tranel,
2011)
A. cruentus is a tall, fast-growing herbaceous annual herb topped with greenish- yellowish
flowers. The plant can grow up to more than three metres high. It is a c4 plant that does well
under very hot temperatures. Amaranthus cruentus is the most commonly grown species in
countries like Sierra Leone. It has medicinal properties that are of paramount important to both
young and adult people. Its properties in high protein content help in marginal and impoverished
African indigenous vegetables have a pivotal role in the success of the world Health
Organisation's initiative on promoting fruits and vegetable consumption (Fransca and Pablo,
2007). Cooked leaves provides Vitamin A, Vitamin C and Foliate, they complement for vitamins
such as thiamine, niacin and riboflavin and the dietary mineral including Calcium, Iron,
Amaranthus species, sequester carbon dioxide in the stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and
alto sphere to attain clean atmosphere. It is part of flora that beautify the environment which is a
natural amenity to attract foreign currency for current generation and posterity.
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2.3.2 Production Trends of A. cruentus
In southern Africa indigenous vegetables are still considered valuable since imperial time. The
leaves of all Amaranthus species are edible and many appear regularly in the diets of several
societies. (Grubben 1976; Lackom 1991). Manicaland province in Zimbabwe is the highest
consumer of indigenous weeds like Amaranthus and spider plant- Black jack. Indigenous
vegetables are sold in rural and in urban markets during rainy season. Due to awareness,
popular with demand frequently surpassing supply. Dried indigenous vegetables improve cross
border trade as peanut butter and dried vegetables are sold to neighbouring countries like
Choice and preference depends on taste and preference among different tribes. Amaranthus
consist of 60-70 species. Some species are used in land- scaping, wedding gardens, around
hotels, vegetables, and seed production used in confectionary for production of flour, corn flecks
and popcorns. Therefore choice of variety is influenced by individual preference for leaf color
and taste (Palada and Sigh, 2003). In Africa most variety used as leaf vegetable is Amaranthus
cruentus and A. hybridas while A. spinosus is a thorn weed. A. tricolor is dominant in the South
and Southeast Asia. Amaranthus dubias is mostly found in the Caribbean Region.
Agronomic Practices
Like other vegetable seeds, Amaranths seed is a small seed that requires fine tilth for easier of
germination. Soils with a wetness factor should be avoided as good aeration is a prerequisite for
8
resumption of metabolic activity. Soils with shallow depth should be avoided as they prolong
wetness period if heavy rains are received which will lead to lodging, wet feet and result of
death. Boulder and rock out crop areas need to be avoided as they hinder germination. Crusting
or t-factor soils have a capping effect that will cement the soil thereby killing all the germinating
seeds. Acidic and Alkaline soils should be avoided as they render nutrients unavailable to the
seedlings. Primary tillage using a disc plough is followed by secondary tillage using spike
2.3.3.2 Planting
Sowing can be done by hand, depth 1.5 cm, in raw spacing 15-45 cm apart, Plant population
3000-4000 plants per hectare. Sowing usually begins in November when rain fed, but commence
in the month of May if irrigation in form of sprinkler, flood and drip is used. Seeds are either
broad cast, sown in rows or sown on well prepared seed beds. For effective germination, the seed
is mixed with sand at a rate of 1g seed per 100 g sand. The seed is weak during germination,
therefore require covering with fine sand to avoid cementing if soils cap.
Planting stations are measured using Pythagoras theorem which result in dug holes having a
uniform pattern uniform diagonal, vertical and horizontal. Open furrow can be done using a
Amaranth has a high rate of photosynthesis and excellent water use efficiency at high
temperatures and radiation intensity which render rapid growth and high water consumption. The
Indigenous vegetable uses six (6 mm) per day which is highly achieved as the crop has high
canopy cover which act as mulch to suppress weed and become correct measure of moisture
9
conservation. Besides rain fed irrigation, Amaranth can do well under sprinkler and flood
irrigation, provided it is planted on raised beds to avoid wet fit caused by fungal diseases.
2.3.5 Weeding
Weed pests in Amaranth production account for between 20-70 % losses in crop yield. (Khan et
al. , 2004). Weeds mainly affect A. cruentus during the critical weed crop competition period
which range between 27 and 50 days. (Srivastava et al. , 2003). If weeds compete with the
desired crop, etiolating result as the crop try to compete for nutrients, sunlight and moisture.
Weeds harvest nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium causing yellowish on the desired crop during
Leaf miners, Cutworm, Aphids, Leaf roller, Beetles and Flea are major pests of A. cruentus. The
most problematic being Cutworm ( Agrotis spp). The dull grey caterpillar with a smooth skin
feeds at night severing A. cruentus vegetable just below soil level. It encircle the plant with its
body and cuts through the stem. One cutworm cuts several Amaranth plants in one night. The
problem is severe at during germination up to three weeks. Aphids, leaf minor, beetles and flea
are not of significance important. Leaf roller falls under Lepidoptera family also favour succulent
Control
Integrated weed management was practised starting with least expensive. Cultural practises, deep
ploughing and clean cultivation of the land six weeks before planting was done to remove the
weeds on which female cutworms lay eggs will reduce. Chlorpyrifos as a bait was used to
control cutworm.
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2.3.7 Harvesting
Amaranths is ready for harvest in 20–45 days after planting or sowing depending on variety and
plant type (Palada et al, 2003). Like other traditional African leafy vegetables, amaranths grow
quickly and thus can be harvested relatively soon after sowing (6–8 weeks) (Chweya and
Eyzaguirre, 1999). Plants may be harvested once or several times. Once-over harvesting is
adapted for short maturing and quick growing varieties such as A. tricolor. Whole plants are
pulled from soil with roots, washed and tied in bundles. With multiple harvests, young leaves
and tender shoots are picked at 2–3 week intervals. Eventually, the plants begin to flower and
develop fewer leaves. Frequent harvesting of leaves and shoots delays the onset of flowering
and thus prolongs the harvest period (Palada et al., 2003). Amaranth and other leafy vegetables
have large surface-to-volume ratio and lose water rapidly. To reduce water loss, harvest during
the cooler time of day, such as early morning or late afternoon. Picking the leaves stimulates
growth (Moss 1988). The seed is ready for harvesting around March-April.
2.3.8 Yield
Vegetable yield has been reported to reach as high as 60 tonnes per hectare. Elbehri et al (1993)
obtained yield response with Nitrogen application of 180 kg/ ha and yield increased from 1094
kg/ ha without N application 1428 kg/ ha with N applied at 190 kg/ ha.
Lysine is an essential amino acid a human body cannot make. This protein that is very expensive
when derived from meat, milk, and fish can be cheaply derived from A. cruentus a very cheap
vegetable which can be grown under rain fed conditions with both organic and inorganic
fertilizers. Protein has a high content of sulphur containing amino acids that is methionine, lysine
and systeine (Grubben, 2004). Protein a major component required by body, is cheaply derived
11
from Amaranhus species, which make this essential nutrient accessed by a poor resource farmer
in a rural set up. The grain has 12 to 17 % protein and is high in lysine, an essential amino acid in
which cereal crops are low (Putnam, Oplinger, Doll, and Schulte, 1989).
2.4 Uses
Saver,(1959) Dried Amaranth is ground and prepared in peanut butter to produce a relish dish
saved with Sadza in Zimbabwe. A. cruentus can be used as fodder to feed livestock. It can be
used to make silage fed to dairy cattle. In Ghana the water from macerated A.cruentus plants is
used as a wash to treat pains and limbs. The seeds are used as cereal Oke, (1983). Senegalese use
boiled roots as a laxative for infants. In Gabon heated leaves of A. cruentus were used on
tumours. Sudanese burn A. cruentus plant to produce ash that is used as a wound dress. Essential
amino acid found in A. cruentus give it the properties to polymerise, novel based properties,
chirality's (Four different groups attached to the central carbon). Amino acids derived from
neurotransmitters, nucleotides, and nitrogenous bases. These amino acids can be converted into
According to research, organic production of grain Amaranth is possible in soils with adequate
moisture for provision of plant available N. Amaranth seed is quite small and range from 0.7 to
0.9 g/ 1000 seeds, which lead to poor and non-uniform seedling establishment. (Brenner et al.,
Putnam, 1990). The problem of variability in plant height and seed head size make it difficult to
harvest using combine harvester. High rainfall tropical areas have high problem of lodging that
12
hinder cultural practices like Fertiliser application, chemical sprays, weeding and harvesting
operations. The C:N ratio of compost and manure may be altered during transportation and
storage, depending on whether the conditions are aerobic or anaerobic (Murwira et al., 1994).
Manures with high NH4+,N content, such as poultry manure, maintain high levels of ammonia
volatilization, which are purportedly between 9 and 44% (Nahm, 2005), displaying a strong
inverse correlation between ammonia losses and C:N ratio (Murwira et al., 1994; Moore et al.,
1995). Nitrogen losses through NH4+–N volatilization will increase C:N ratios and ultimately
N availability, but these losses tend to be greatest under dry, windy climatic conditions which
facilitate evaporation and volatilization (Moore et al., 1995). Similarly, most studies
corroborate that poultry manure contains high levels of inorganic N as ammonium (NH4+–N)
prior to handling and storage (Davis et al. 2002; Moore et al. 1995; Chae and Tabatabai, 1986).
For cattle manure, ammonium levels are generally lower than for poultry manure; however,
these values depend on the feeding regimen and, more specifically, whether the animals are
beef or dairy cattle. Research conducted by Burger and Venterea (2007) indicated that, while
NH4+–N content of manure from beef cattle may be as low as 5 mg kg-1, NH4+,N levels
reported for dairy cows (64 mg kg-1) were higher than those found for turkeys (50 mg kg-1).
Similarly, a study comparing N mineralization from various manures and composts by Gale et
al. (2006) demonstrated levels ranging from 49.3 to 82.7 mg kg-1 for uncomposted broiler
manure and 6.9 to 24.0 mg kg-1 for solid dairy manure. The same study corroborated lower
quantities of solid dairy manure. Countries in developing countries use organic manure, but the
challenges they face are of poor nitrogen levels which will lead to low Amaranth production.
13
Elevated price of Nitrogen fertilizers made other farmers to shun planting Amaranth vegetable.
Lack of training on the importance of Nitrogen as the essential element of Amino acids, proteins
and its role in photosynthesis, carbohydrate use and metabolic processes through various plant
secondary compounds (Brady and Weill 1999) result in complete ignorance toward A cruentus
farming.
Low of diminishing returns reveals that the more fertilisers are applied in excess, the yield will
decline, and therefore effective farming is after soil analysis to avoid over application which will
Low production is also as a result of nutrient budget of Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in
African soils. (Esilaba et al., 2005, and Smaling et al. (1997) Low soil fertility is the major
constraint to sustainable development throughout sub Saharan Africa (SSA) (Nyombi et al.,
2006)
chloroplasts, 50% of which is RUBISCO. Nitrogen levels may become very low enough to
impair photosynthesis through mobilisation and export of Nitrogen from leaves to other organs
of the plant. In Amaranthus cruentus Nitrogen uptake is reduced after anthesis and Nitrogen is
exported from leaves towards flowering to meet the demands of growing seeds, reducing net
photosynthesis. Nitrogen is necessary for protein synthesis. Amaranthus is a C4 plant that require
high nitrogen levels. If nutrients are in short supply they are translocated from older leaves to the
younger leaves. Nitrogen, Manganese and iron are constituents of chlorophyll and if they are in
short supply chlorophyll will not form and thus reduce carbon exchange rate (CER).
Remobilization of nutrients to the sinks will lead to necrosis and chlorosis of lower leaves, which
14
will predispose the plant to Necrotic fungi (blight and rotting fungi), which can survive on
decaying and dead host tissue. Bacterial infections cause structural damages to chloroplasts.
15
CHAPTER 3
The study was conducted from 17/ November/2014 through to March 2015, In Nyanga South A,
Ward 24, during the cropping season 2014/2015. The district lies in Natural Farming Region 1
and about 141 km from Harare. Nyanga lies between longitude and 32.74 and latitude 18.21 and
2000 m above sea level with an annual rainfall of 1000 mm and mean temperature of 18ºC
The experimental was laid out at a Randomised Complete Block Design with five treatments (0,
50, 100, 150, 200 kg N/ha and replicated three times( Table 3.1.)
1 0
2 150
3 50
4 200
5 150
16
3.2 Management of non-experimental variables
The study was established on land that had never been cultivated before. The land being virgin,
labour was employed to dig out grass, Primary tillage followed by disking and levelling was
done before pegging of plots. The plot area was 17.5 m x9 m to give a net area of 157.5 m2. The
pathway distance was 0.5 m. Each block was divided into five equal plots which were 3 x 3.5 =
10.5 m2 with spacing of 0.4 m and 0.4 m, respectively. The seeds were sown on 17/11/14. For
good seed spacing during planting, seed was mixed with fine sand. Planting depth was 1.0 cm
deep. Thinning was done three weeks after planting, to reduce population and competition for
water, nutrient and nutrient. Thinning is done to avoid etiolating and the fact that A. cruentus is a
weak emerger, thinning renders vigour. The experiment was rain fed, with no supplementary
irrigation. Weeding was done with a hoe uniformly throughout the experiment plot in a day. First
fertilizer application was done three weeks after planting, with the main source of N being
First vegetable harvest commence 15 weeks after planting, harvesting can be earlier than that if
the farmer is uprooting the whole plant. Fresh side shoots can be harvestable on a daily basis, but
an interval of weekly harvesting of side shoots leaving leaves for photosynthesis was done. The
data were recorded on 66 plants in each replication for vegetable weight in (kg/ha). On dry
matter the weight was measured in (kg/ha). A digital and manual scale was used. On days to 50
% flowering , days were physically counted. On seed, yield was measured in (kg/ha).
17
3.4 Data Analysis
An Analysis of Variance was carried out as per harvest time on the parameters of growth in
terms of fresh leaf weight (kg), Fresh and dry weight (kg), seed yield (kg) and days to 50 %
flowering using the Genstat 14th Version. Fisher's least significant difference (LSD) test was
18
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
350
300
250
Oct-14
200
Rainfall mm
Nov-14
Dec-14
150
Jan-15
Feb-15
100
Mar-15
Apr-15
50
0
Oct-14 Nov-14 Dec-14 Jan-15 Feb-15 Mar-15 Apr-15
Season 2014/15
Rainfall was evenly distributed during the trial project, with highest rainfall received in the
month of December and January which gives A. cruentus a long time of vegetable harvest.
19
4.1 Effects of nitrogen levels on the growth and yield of
A. cruentus
There was an interaction (p<0.05) between leaf vegetable yield and different Nitrogen fertilizer
levels. Highest vegetables yield were obtained at 200 kg/ ha with a mean of 58359 kg/ha which
is statistically different to the control and other treatments. The lowest vegetable weight was
obtained at 50 kg/ ha with a mean of 23670 kg/ha, though it is significantly different from the
control.
0 12060a
50 23670b
100 30686c
150 33562c
200 58359d
Significance <.001
L.S.D.(o.o5) 4294.0
C.V.% 7.2
20
4.1.2 Days to 50% Flowering
There was no significant difference (p>0.05) between different Nitrogen levels on the days to 50
4.2.1 Effects of different Nitrogen level of Amaranth in terms of seed yield (kg/ha)
There was significant difference (p<0.05) between different Nitrogen levels on seed yield.
Highest seed weight were obtained at 200 kg/ha N with a yield of 3500 kg/ha, while the lowest
4000
3500
3000
2500
0kg/ha
Seed yield (kg/ha) 2000 50kg/ha
100kg/ha
1500
150kg/ha
1000 200kg/ha
500
0
0kg/ha 50kg/ha 100kg/ha 150kg/ha 200kg/ha
Nitrogen fertilizer (kg/ha)
21
4.2.2 Effects of different Nitrogen levels on dry weight of leaves (kg/ha).
There was significant difference (P<0.05) by use of different Nitrogen levels. The highest dry
weight was obtained on 200 kg ha N, with the mean of 45102 kg/ha, which is statistically
different to the control and other means and the lowest among the treatments was obtained at 50
kg/ha with the mean of 18929 though it was significantly different to the control.
0 12621a
50 18929b
100 24080c
150 32573d
200 45102e
Significance <.001
L.S.D.(o.o5) 4378.0
C.V.% 8.7
22
CHAPTER 5
5.0 Discussion
5.1 Effect of Different Nitrogen levels on growth and yield of Amaranth in terms of
The results of this study showed that there was significant effect (p<0.05) on Nitrogen fertilizer
level on fresh weight. This was evidently shown by the fact that the highest values were
observed in plants fertilised with 150 and 200 kg/ha N with mean yield of 33562 kg/ha and
58339 kg/ha respectively while the lowest was at 0 kg/ ha N with mean yield 0f 12060 kg/ha.
This is also in line with the observation made by Elbehri et al (1993) who obtained yield
response with Nitrogen application of 180 kg/ha and yields increased from 1094 kg/ha without
N application to 1428 kg/ ha with N applied at 190 kg/ha. This shows that Nitrogen contributes
greatly to yield increase as indicated by Ayadele (1998) in his study to compare two species of
rates of Nitrogen. The results showed that, number of leaves produces, fresh and dry weights of
plants increased with the increased rate of Nitrogen application. Nitrogen contribute to growth
chlorophyll and coenzymes which is vital for growth which results in higher yield advantage as
The time taken to reach 50 % flowering showed no significant difference at all as the range of
flowering rate could not be linked to specific N fertilizer level. Plants that received lower N
levels like 0 kg/ha N reached 50 % flowering earlier than those with higher rates. This was
23
attributed to the contribution of inherent soil fertility which also supplied other nutrients like
There was a marked significant difference (p<0.05) on the effect of differing levels of nitrogen on
the seed yield with the highest seed yield recorded on200 kg/ha which had 3390 kg/ha and of
nitrogen in the soil. All vital processes in plants are associated with protein of which nitrogen is
an essential constituent hence nitrogen occupies a conspicuous place in plant metabolism (Ali et
al., 2011). They went on to add that nitrogen application in the form of chemical fertilizer is
essential in order to get more crop production. Application of nitrogenous fertilizer improves
various crop parameters such as grain weight and grain yield (Warraich et al., 2002; Ali et al.,
2011). The management of nitrogen, and other essential nutrients, is part of a balanced fertility
programme. This can lead to increased efficiency and profitability for Amaranth growers because
plants absorb N in the highest amounts of any essential nutrient since it is a C4 plant, Therefore N
is needed in large quantities and must be in balance with other nutrients in order for the crop to
There is no other nutrient as important as nitrogen (N) to attain high yields of Amaranth with
acceptable grain protein (Orloff et.al, 2012). As nitrogen is an essential constituent of structural
and storage proteins, simple amino compounds, enzymes and chlorophyll, young leaves should be
supplied with nitrogen until they reach maturity. Chlorophyll is associated with the production of
simple sugars from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. High concentrations of chlorophyll combined
with nitrogen utilize the sunlight as an energy source to carry out essential plant functions
24
including nutrient uptake. The sugars produced play an important role in stimulating plant growth
and development along with higher protein content in the grain. Chlorosis of the plant leaves
which will start in the oldest leaves, and then proceed to develop on younger leaves if the
deficiency continues in cases of nitrogen deficiency. Nitrogen deficient plants are typically shorter
and or stunted and grow slower than plants with sufficient nitrogen. Nitrogen deficiency in
There was significant difference (p<0.05) between the Nitrogen levels on dry weight, with the
highest dry weight attained at higher levels of 150 and 200 kg /ha N, with mean yield of 32573
kg/ha kg/ ha and 45102 kg/ha respectively while the lowest was at 0 kg/ ha with mean yield of
12621 kg/ha. This study were in accordance with the findings of Nyankanga et al. (2012) who,
in a similar study, obtained the highest dry matter in grain Amaranth in Western Kenya with the
application 100 kg N/ ha inorganic fertilizer, and a host of others who have also reported
significant increase in plant dry matter accumulation per plant with corresponding increase in
the fertility level up to a certain level (Kushwaha, 2001; Kalmani et al., 2002; Olaniyi and
Ajibola, 2008).
25
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Conclusion
The results of this study showed that seed , leaf vegetable and dry weight can be obtained with
higher N fertilizers of 200 kg/ ha. This gives a farmer high chances of maximising income from
sale of fresh vegetable leaf at the same time meeting their nutritional needs. There was also
effect on 50 % flowering and dry weight. It was therefore evident from this study that the
6.2 Recommendations
Based on the results from this research, 200 kg/ha N is recommended fertilizer to increase seed
yield, fresh leaf vegetables and dry weight. However I would advise further research to be
carried out on integrating organic and inorganic manure since Nyanga is a high rainfall area.
Further research need to be carried out in different Natural regions on organoleptic taste and
26
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30
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Fresh Vegetable Weight
Analysis of Variance
Variate: Total_veg_yld_kg_ha
Block.*Units* stratum
Treat 4 3.496E+09 8.740E+08 168.04 <.001
Residual 8 4.161E+07 5.201E+06
Total 14 3.568E+09
Block.*Units* stratum
Treat 4 614.400 153.600
Residual 8 0.000 0.000
Total 14 614.400
31
Appendix 3: Seed Yield
Analysis of Variance
Variate: Seed_Yield_Ha
Block.*Units* stratum
Treat 4 18743014. 4685753. 113.66 <.001
Residual 8 329820. 41228.
Total 14 19830421.
Block.*Units* stratum
Treat 4 1.916E+09 4.790E+08 88.59 <.001
Residual 8 4.325E+07 5.407E+06
Total 14 1.977E+09
32