Agribusiness Handbooks

vol. 6

Poultry / Eggs & Poultry Meat

This publication was prepared by the FAO Investment Centre under the FAO/EBRD
cooperation agreement to provide quick technical and economical reference material to
EBRD’s agribusiness team in sub-sectors where they often work. Focus was given to the
Bank’s countries of operation in Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent
States, with indicators of technical and economical performance in other regions of the world
noted for comparison.

The series of handbooks contained in this publication cover specific agribusiness sub-sectors,
with information on production and processing techniques, costs and margins, world
production, prices and trade trends. Data were collected from a number of official and
unofficial sources as indicative information that should be interpreted with caution, and do not
imply the expression of any opinion by FAO concerning the economic situation of countries
mentioned.

(October 1999)

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Poultry represents an important and increasing part of human food consumption, be it through
poultry meat (25% of global meat consumption) or eggs. Chicken accounts for about
85%1 of all poultry varieties placement world-wide, the 15% remaining being divided mainly
between fowls, ducks, pigeons, turkeys, geese and quails. Hen eggs represent 90% of the
global eggs primary production.
This handbook will therefore focus on (i) broilers for meat production and (ii) laying hen for
eggs production.
One should clearly differentiate two ways of managing poultry breeding: intensive &
extensive breeding. Extensive breeding largely spreads over developing countries where
natural native genetic lines are used, while in industrialised countries, poultry production is
largely based on genetic science progresses, with sterile hybrids being used for reproduction
purpose. This last way maximises the productivity of breeding activities.
Success of poultry meat during the past 10 years is mainly due to:
• dietetic quality, rich in protein with low fat content, and very digest,
• very large choice of products for consumers, including elaborated products which have
strongly developed during the past 5 years,
• competitive prices, important factor in the competition between different meats.

1- BROILERS FOR MEAT PRODUCTION

1.1. Key production parameters

• Specialised firms/institutes obtain chicks from hybrid lines selected for specific
characteristics such as resistance to diseases, growth curve, adaptation to certain types of
feed, etc… Female chicks are systematically killed.
• Male chicks are sold to breeders. They can be sold vaccinated or not. In the last case,
breeders must vaccinate their chicks themselves.
• Production cycles of about 6 weeks. The quicker the growth is, the lower quality meat is
obtained. Therefore, a tuned calculation has to be done to establish the best profitability
(costs of breeding vs mature broilers sale's prices).
• Feed quality, heat regulation, sanitary control and animal density within breeding houses
(in average 10 animals/m²) are the most important factors having an impact on growth.
• After 6 weeks, broilers reach 2 to 3 kg, with an average weight of 2,5 kg.
• They are then gathered into cages and sold to processors for slaughtering.

1.2. Key production costs

Production costs are very volatile. They depend a lot on the final product desired
characteristics (brand-named or low quality chicken), but also on feed prices (mainly grain
prices), climatic conditions, and genetic lines used. Therefore, they vary a lot from one region
to another.
Ref. page # 55

1
in European Union, Chicken accounts only for 70% of total poultry meat produced and consumed.

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 1.3. Live broilers sale’s prices

Average Prices Paid to Producers for Mature Broilers in Different Regions of the World
(farm cost in US$ per kg liveweight - 1994)

China USA E.U. Poland Thailand Brazil

0.61 0.56 0.95 0.97 0.69 0.51
source: IFC Global Agribusiness Series - The world poultry industry

Price ranges may vary significantly, influenced by seasonal patterns, input costs and relative
costs of competing meats. If for example red meat courses collapse, poultry meat prices will
automatically decreased since on the meat market for consumers, it must stay the cheapest
choice, as it is one of major poultry sector strengths.

1.4. Average margins for producers

Margins for broilers producers depend a lot on final product characteristics (low or high quality
product - brand-named chicken with more tender flesh and more flavour). Indeed, high quality
products have a slower and longer growing period, which means higher production costs since
more feed is used, but also other miscellaneous variable costs are slightly increased. The
choice for final product characteristics is largely determined by how much consumers are
ready to pay for high quality broilers.
It is nevertheless possible to draw approximation for the calculation of average margins.

Average Gross Margin for Broilers Producers in UK

(bird sold at 43 days)
US$
Returns: 2.30 kg per bird @ US$ 0.9 per kg.....................................................................2.07
LESS Cost of chick (a) ........................................................................................................0.41

OUTPUT ............................................................................................................................1.66

Variable costs
Food: 4.35 kg per bird @ US$ 250 per tonne ...............................................................1.09
Heat, light, labour, miscellaneous (b)..............................................................................0.20

TOTAL VARIABLE COSTS ....................................................................................................1.29

GROSS MARGIN PER BIRD ..................................................................................................0.37

source: Farm Management Pocketbook - John Nix, 1998

(a)
assumed 3 per cent mortality.
(b)
excluding transport, but including all vaccination costs.

1.5. Other relevant information

In 1999, returns for producers have become more favourable due to ample soybean and corn
supplies resulting in low feed prices. Feed costs typically account for 70% of all production costs.

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2- CHICKEN SLAUGHTERING AND PROCESSING

2.1. Process description

The range of finish products depends on

• the raw material processed
• the degree of processing: - eviscerated broiler (with head and feet)
- eviscerated broiler (ready to cook)
- carved broiler
- deboned broiler meat pieces
- prepared meals
• the method of preservation: - cold products (refrigerated with air or water)
- frozen products

A poultry slaughterhouse consists of an aerial conveyor belt, from which the birds hang
suspended by the feet. The conveyor belt brings the poultry through certain automatic
machines, or in front of manual posts, so as to execute the following operations:

Reception of living
animals from source of Weighting of cages
breeding

Hydraulic conveyor belt

Slaughtering Anesthesia (optional, depending on ritual)

Blood Bleeding

Passage through hot water bath

Plucking Specific plucker machine

Feathers

Hooking the head and + optional skinning, depending of the final

feets product to be manufactured.

Livers Evisceration cutting of cloaca

Hearts opening of abdomen
Gizzards (automatic or manual)
extracting of abdominal organs

Optional
Processing

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 Slitting of throat

interior aspiration with a vacuum pump

before final inspection
Cooling
with air or water

Whole broilers ready for packaging

Optional carving

Ready to be packed carved or

deboned broilers' pieces

Optional deboning

2.2. Conversion factors from live animals

The figure commonly used is the carcass yield, which corresponds to carcass weight v.s.
weight of the alive animal. This figure varies a lot depending on production conditions - some
estimates are given hereafter:
Average Broiler Carcass Yield in Different Regions of the World - 1997

China USA E.U. Russia Brazil World Average

carcass yield 2.2 2.0 1.46 1.5 1.54 1.38 kg
FCR 2.15 2.0 1.85 3.3 2.0 2.2
source: CFCE

The genetic potential for broiler production under ideal conditions can be estimated from the
claims of the breeding companies. An example is the standard published by Arbor Acres,
which claims the following:
Liveweight 2.57 kgs
Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) 1.91 (kg feed needed / kg meat produced)
Age at slaughter 49 days
Index value 274.6
The index is a summary indicator of technical performances. It is calculated as:
liveweight x 10,000
Index = -----------------------------------------------
feed conversion ratio x days of age

2.3. Key slaughtering and processing costs

Investment costs for a 4 000 chickens/hour slaughterhouse represent around US$ 2.4 million,
including equipment (US$ 1 000 000), surface building (around 1 100 m²) and surface land
(around 2 500 m²).

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 Comparative illustrative Operating Cost for Slaughtering and Processing (US$ / kg RTC)
(Assumptions: 1 800 h per year operation - annual processing capacity of 4000 chickens/hour)

Item USA France Poland

Meat cost at plant 0.76 1.23 1.29
Labour 0.15 0.16 0.10
Packaging 0.05 0.06 0.04
Utilities (water, fuel, electricity) 0.02 0.03 -
Office, supplies, misc. 0.03 0.04 0.07
Fixed-cost 0.03 0.03 0.02
non-labour 0.13 0.17 0.13

Total direct operating costs 1.17 1.72 1.65

source: Global Poultry Report - IFC Agribusiness - May 1995

Eastern European countries are characterised by a relatively high cost structure caused by an
inadequate bird performance in spite of a rather favourable raw material position.
Because the raw materials are perishable, the conception / organisation of the slaughterhouse
must be closely adapted to supply conditions (average weight of animals, age, available
quantity per week, seasonality of supplies, …).

2.4. Broiler wholesale’s prices

Average wholesale whole bird prices in Different Regions of the World

(US$ per kg)

USA Poland France China World average

1996 1.35 1.63 1.86 0.97 1.45
1998 1.39 1.72 1.65 1.02 1.37
source: FAO Stat & OFIVAL

Wholesale prices depend a lot on product quality standard (label policy based on feed quality,
intensive/extensive production). Farm chicken may be twice more expensive than an industrial one.

2.5. Average margin for processors

Broiler cost and return budgets / USA - 1990 (US$ / kg liveweight)

Feed costs 0.36

Additional production costs 0.23
Total liveweight production costs 0.59
Total production costs - Ready To Cook basis 0.78
Processing and marketing costs 0.31
Total costs - Ready To Cook basis 1.09
Market price 1.17
Net return before overhead and interest 0.07
source: Economic Research Services - USDA

A spreading of the global economic contagion to Brazil and the resulting devaluation of the
Real in January 1999 is leading to considerable uncertainty about 1999 prospects for the
Brazilian poultry industry. Brazil continues nevertheless to be the lowest cost producer of
broiler meat in the world, turning out live broilers at a cost of around US$ 0.64/kg, thus
allowing Brazil to maintain its position as the world's second largest exporter.

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 2.6. Total world production & main producers

Production of Chicken Meat in the Main Producing Countries and Regions

Country 1990 1994 1998

or region ('000 tons) % ('000 tons) % ('000 tons) %
USA 8 667 25 10 965 25.4 12 724 24.8
China 2.200 6.2 4 600 10.6 7 715 15
Brazil 2 356 6.6 3 411 7.9 4 490 8.8
Mexico 750 2.1 1 126 2.6 1 558 3
Japan 1 391 3.8 1 256 2.9 1 225 2.4
France 1 049 3 1 240 2.9 1 240 2.5
UK 790 2.3 1 065 2.5 1 187 2.3
Thailand 575 1.6 740 1.7 960 1.9
Spain 807 2.2 850 2 888 1.7
Italy 823 2.3 818 1.8 863 1.7
Indonesia 473 1.2 803 1.8 807 1.6
Canada 597 1.7 721 1.7 820 1.6
Iran 380 1.1 613 1.4 730 1.4
Russian Fed. - 1 068 2.4 600 1.2
Argentina 322 1 519 1.2 574 1.1
Australia 385 1.1 468 1.1 550 1.1
India 342 1 467 1.1 526 1
Others 13 451 38 12 502 29 13 773 26.9
World Total 35 358 100 43 232 100 51 230 100

sources: FAO STAT

Russian poultry meat output which increased slightly in 1998 due to low feed prices,
increased regional government support and higher levels of investment in the industry is
expected to jump 13% to 720 000 tons in 1999. Besides government support, Russian
financial groups, foreign companies and meat processing plants are making investments in the
poultry industry. This recovery in production is expected to dramatically drop Russia's import
dependence on imported poultry meat which reached 70 percent in 1997

Output growth of the Mexican poultry industry, the fourth largest in the world, is expected to
be constrained in 1999 by high interest rates and the industry's difficulty procuring feed
requirements.

The Russian crisis, lower WTO subsidised export commitments, an overburdened pork
industry, the return of consumer confidence in beef meat and increasing government pressure
for more stringent environmental regulations are setting the stage for a slowdown in EU
poultry meat production in 1999. Concern about waning export opportunities in 1999 has for
example prompted the French and the Dutch industries to limit chicken placements and
increase the time between production cycles.

Asia is already the leading area in terms of the number of birds killed, but the average weight
at slaughter is considerable below that in North/Central America

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 2.7. Broiler meat world trade trends

Major Broiler Meat Importers and Exporters ('000 metric tons in Ready-to-Cook equivalent)

Country EXPORTS IMPORTS

1994 1998 % 1994 1998 %
USA 1 304 2 119 44 - 2 -
Brazil 481 610 12.7 - - -
Hong-Kong 285 572 11.9 498 839 22.5
France 315 346 7.2 7 4 -
China 177 335 7 323 755 20.2
Thailand 168 282 5.9 - - -
Netherlands 108 171 3.6 9 18 0.5
Hungary 35 68 1.4 - - -
Canada 15 55 1.1 62 75 2
Mexico - - - 102 128 3.4
Russia - - - 475 792 21.2
Japan 3 3 - 444 495 13.2
Saudi Arabia - - - 274 282 7.5
Germany - 41 35 0.9
Poland - - - 42 52 1.4
Romania - - - 45 20 0.5
Argentina - 20 0.4 52 70 1.8
Others 195 232 4.8 121 169 4.5
World Total 3 086 4 813 100 2 488 3 736 100

source: USDA - FAS post report and inter-agency analysis

After experiencing double-digit export gains over the past decade, poultry meat exports in
1998 registered an unprecedented decline as the financial crisis in Russia put the brakes on
the growth in world poultry meat trade in mid-year. The pervasiveness of the economic crisis
in Russia is expected to generate a decline in overall poultry meat imports by selected
countries in 1999 to 4.4 million tons.
In Eastern European Countries, poultry meat consumption per capita should keep growing
quickly, while production curve should follow more slowly: quantities available for export
should thus decrease globally. Hungary will remain by far the most important exporter within
the region.
While continuing to be the world's major poultry meat supplier, U.S. exports are expected to
drop, benefiting to changing competitive position of major poultry meat exporters due to
currency devaluations, such as Brazil and some Asian countries.
China's role in the poultry meat export market is being increasingly challenged by the wave of
competitor currency devaluations and product quality concerns. While China continued to be
Japan's (the world's fourth largest poultry import market) major poultry meat supplier in 1998,
strong competition from Thailand and Brazil arose.
The strong export growth enjoyed by the EU poultry meat industry over the past few years
came to a halt in 1998. The devaluation of the Brazilian currency in expected to generate
extreme price competition in the Middle East for French whole birds, especially in the context
of declining subsidised export limits.

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 Detailed Status of Poultry Meat in Eastern European Countries

Production ('000t) Domestic cons ('000t) Exportations ('000t) Importations ('000t)

1994 1996 1998 1994 1996 1998 1994 1996 1998 1994 1996 1998
Poland 345 410 500 407 430 535 15 20 25 77 40 60
Hungary 320 328 385 241 242 294 80 86 100 2 0 9
Romania 135 180 142 179 186 170 3 1 2 47 7 30
Czech Rep. 124 125 137 121 130 150 8 6 3 5 11 16
Slovakia 35 61 80 45 62 79 1 2 3 3 2 2
Bulgaria 52 102 98 49 100 107 4 6 7 1 4 16
EEC Total 1011 1206 1342 1042 1150 1335 111 121 140 135 64 133

source: OFIVAL

2.8. Other relevant information

Depending on the enforced regulations, a poultry slaughterhouse generally requires the

presence of a veterinary services official for the inspection of the viscera. Once pulled out from
the carcass, the viscera are hanged

Per Capita Broiler Meat Consumption in Selected Countries- 1997

(kg per year)

China Japan USA France UK Poland Hungary Russia Brazil

4.6 13.1 38.3 13.4 20.0 7.3 16.3 8.8 23.0
source: FAS - USDA

3- LAYING HEN BREEDING FOR EGGS PRODUCTION

3.1. Key production parameters

• Specialised firm/institutes obtain chicks from hybrid lines selected for specific
characteristics such as yearly number of eggs laid, eggs size, adaptation to certain types
of feed, etc… Male chicks are systematically killed.
• Female chicks are sold to breeders. They can be sold vaccinated or not. In the last case,
breeders must vaccinate themselves their chicks.
• During the two first weeks of growth there are no differences with male chicks grown to
become broilers. Feed quality, heat regulation, sanitary control and animal density within
hen-houses are key factors on which depends chicks' mortality.
• Nutrition balance changes from the third week, with the view to ensuring a relatively low
development of muscles which will give better laying performances.
• From the 17th week, begins the regulation of the light cycle, which has an important impact
on laying frequency. First laying takes place in week 20.
• A laying hen will give from 200 up to 300 eggs during its life. After about 50 weeks, when
the laying curve decreases too much, hens are gathered a few weeks out of the regulated
light cycle in order to perform the so-called moulting (change of feathers). A second laying
cycle can then begin.

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• Eggs are to be collected and washed as soon as possible after they are laid, to avoid them
getting dirty or broken. Attention should be paid to keep rats, snakes or other predators
away from the layer house.
• Before slaughtering, laying hens are given appropriate feed to reconstitute muscles
volume. They will be sold to consumers as low quality chickens or carved poultry meat
products.

3.2. Hen eggs sale’s prices

Average Producers' Prices of Hen Shell Eggs (Large) in different region of the world
(local currency per dozen)

USA Russia Hungary France China Japan

(US$) (Roubles) (Florins) (Francs) (Yuan) (Yen)
1990 0.73 - - - 2.90 139
1994 0.60 - - 4.03 3.85 101
1996 0.82 4.89 120.10 4.31 3.98 120
1998 0.72 5.81 103.10 3.82 4.11 97
1998 in US$ 0.72 0.97 0.47 0.68 0.49 0.84

source: National Agricultural Statistics Service - USDA & FAO Stat & International Egg Commission

3.3. Average margins for breeders

Average Gross Margin for Laying Hen Breeders in UK

(yields assumed: 290 eggs / 52 weeks laying period)

US$
Cages Free range
per bird per egg per bird per egg
(a)
Egg returns 17.07 0.059 27.65 0.096
LESS Livestock depreciation (b) 3.92 0.013 4.19 0.014

OUTPUT (per year) 13.15 0.046 23.46

0.082

Variable costs
Food (c) 8.17 0.028 9.88 0.034
Heat, light, labour, miscellaneous 1.55 0.005 1.49 0.005

TOTAL VARIABLE COSTS 9.72 0.033 11.37 0.039

GROSS MARGIN PER BIRD 3.43 0.013 12.09 0.043

source: Farm Management Pocketbook - John Nix, 1998

(a)
average price per egg - UK, 1998 - US$ 0.059 for cage production & 0.096 for free range production. Feed cost is
dependent on breed, housing and environmental conditions, quatity purchased and type of ration.
(b)
the average point of lay pullet is priced at US$ 3.75 (17 weeks old) less US$ 0.03 for culls (forward booking only).
(c)
43 kg @ US$ 190 per tonne for cage production / 47.5 kg @ US$ 208 per tonne for free range production.

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 3.4. World production & main producers

World Production of Hen Eggs (millions pieces)

Country or region 1990 1994 1998 %

1998
China 158 920 281 010 359 000 48.7
USA 67 987 74 136 78 960 10.7
Japan 40 318 43 047 43 000 5.9
Russia 47 470 37 400 32 500 4.4
Mexico 18 040 25 896 26 100 3.5
France 14 629 16 370 16 450 2.2
Brazil 13 454 13 460 17 735 2.4
Germany 16 800 13 960 13 900 2.0
Italy 11 454 11 599 12 000 1.6
UK 10 658 10 620 10 600 1.4
Spain 10 659 9 670 9 900 1.3
Ukraine 16 287 10 145 7 800 1.1
Others 99 620 97 232 110 631 14.8
World Total 526 296 644 545 738 576 100

source: Foreign Agricultural Service - USDA

World Total (Mt) 35 241 395 41 281 414 48 112 745

source: FAO Stat

• China is by far the world's largest producer and consumer of eggs. China's production has
more than doubled since the early 1990's, with nearly a record 400 billion (33.3 billion
dozen) produced in 1997, about half of the world's total.
• The U.S. is the world's second largest egg producer with 1997 production estimated at 78
billion (6.5 billion dozen). However, a major difference persists between the two nations in
respect to usage. Much of China's production is directly consumed as fresh brown eggs
whereas in the U.S. about a third of production is processed and white eggs are favored
for table use.
• Egg consumption gains in developed countries and China are slowing in 1998 and 1999.
Growing at a more sedate pace than the 4 percent yearly gains witnessed since the mid-
1980's, egg consumption is expected to slow to a two percent annual increase.

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 3.5. Hen eggs world trade trends

Major Hen Eggs Importers and Exporters

(million pieces less hatching)

Country EXPORTS IMPORTS

or
region 1994 1998 % 1994 1998 %
USA 2 251 2 625 33.5 44 70 1.4
Netherlands 2 333 1 902 24.3 122 195 3.8
China 647 900 11.5 7 5 -
Turkey 164 600 7.7 2 2 -
India 117 350 4.5 - - -
Canada 295 355 4.5 551 700 13.8
France 246 340 4.3 7 212 4.2
Italy 111 185 2.4 87 5 -
Germany 279 125 1.6 220 75 1.5
Thailand 1 99 1.3 - - -
Hong Kong 30 6 - 1 691 1 485 29.4
Japan - - - 1 696 1 730 34.2
Mexico - - - 144 253 5
Poland 2 10 - 220 100 2
Russia 50 50 0.6 50 60 1.2
Others 247 291 3.7 142 163 3.2
World Total 6 773 7 838 100 4 983 5 055 100

source: USDA - FAS post report and inter-agency analysis

• Foreign trade in eggs is small. The net total favour exports. The EU generally accounts for
about a third of world exports while Asia, paced by Japan and Hong Kong import about
75% of the total.
• Asia, which constitutes nearly two-thirds of imports by selected countries (Japan and
Hong Kong accounts for more than 60 percent of total imports) encountered concerns
about health aspects of egg in 1998. Consequently, imports by selected countries are
poised to witness a 8 percent decline in 1997, before recovering to more than 5 billion
eggs in 1998.
• The United States continues to be the largest shipper of egg products to world markets,
supplying nearly 40 percent of imports by selected countries in 1997.
• Despite declining WTO limits on export subsidies, EU exports remain surprisingly robust.
An oversupply of eggs in most EU countries dropped prices in mid-1997 and 1998.
Authorised restitution levels for eggs are moving progressively downward to 109 700 tons
in 1998, as restitution levels edge upward to US$ 0.13/dozen. The Netherlands is the EU's
leading exporter, exporting nearly 80 percent of production and accounting for nearly 60
percent of EU exports to third countries.
• U.S. and EU egg exports are nevertheless experiencing increasing competition in the
Middle East from regional competitors such as Turkey, Thailand and India. Turkish egg
exports are destined mainly to FSU republics. They are supported through export

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 subsidies of approximately US$ 0.7 per 1000 eggs, limited to 10 percent of export volume
and value. The subsidy is in the form of a tax deduction rather than cash payment.
• Although not showing much movement in recent years, trade in liquid egg during the
nineties has been well above the levels of 10 years earlier. The bulk (80%) of this trade is
conducted between European Union countries. The picture for dried egg is similar to that
of the liquid product, an upward trend being evident over the past 20 years or so. Again,
the majority of the business is between EU member states.

3.6. Other relevant information

Per Capita Table Eggs Consumption in Selected Countries - 1997

(in pieces per year - including egg products)

China Japan USA France UK Poland Romania Russia Brazil

274 353 242 255 172 190 105 201 98
source: FAS - USDA

• Hen eggs' weight may vary from 50 up to 70 grams, but the average figure one should use
is 55 grams / egg.
• One of the important by products of poultry production is the manure, which has a
significant economic value, be it sold or directly used by producers applied to the crops
grown, if any.

• List of relevant web sites visited

- http://www.fas.usda.gov/dlp/circular/1999/99-03LP/pltry1.htm
- http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg06/publi/peco
- http://www.canadaegg.ca
- http://www.internationalegg.com

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