Chapter 10

Chemical Bonding II:

Molecular Geometry and
Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
 Shape or geometry effect on properties;
d, mp, bp, reactivity, etc.
 Prediction of geometry based on Lewis structures
 Chemical bond formation:
valence bond (VB) theory-hybridization

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further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) model:
• 3-D arrangement of atoms
• Valence-outer electrons in bonding
• In polyatomic; repulsion between electrons-as far apart as possible
• The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model;
the geometry which minimizes the repulsions between electrons!

 General rules to predict the molecule geometry using the VSEPR:

 Double and triple bonds are treated like single bonds
 Resonance structures (>2), VSEPR is applied any of them
• Formal charges not shown

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-2

 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has No Lone Pair
General formula: ABx (A: central atom)
x=2,3,…… (mostly 2,…,6)
x=1ABlinear geometry
• The electron pairs stay as far from one another as possible
• No lone pairs containing central atom  five possible arrangements
AB2, AB3, AB4, AB5, AB6
• AB2: Beryllium Chloride (BeCl2)

Angle - ClBeCl
# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular
Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
AB2 2 0
© McGraw-Hill Education. linear linear10-3
(# : Number)
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has No Lone Pair

• AB3: Boron Trifluoride (BF3)

Angle - FBF

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
AB3 3 0
© McGraw-Hill Education. Trigonal planar Trigonal planar
10-4
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has No Lone Pair

• AB4: Methane (CH4)

- Solid wedges : Bonds coming out the page
- Dashed wedges : Bonds going into the page
- Solid lines : Bonds in the plane of the page

Angle - HCH

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
AB4 4 0
© McGraw-Hill Education. Tetrahedral Tetrahedral
10-5
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has No Lone Pair

• AB5: Phosphorus Pentachloride (PCl5)

Angle – ClPCl (axial-equatorial): 90°

ClPCl (two equatorial bonds): 120°
ClPCl (two axial bonds): 180°

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
Trigonal Trigonal
AB5 5 0
© McGraw-Hill Education. bipyramidal bipyramidal
10-6
Jump to long description Jump to long description Jump to long description
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has No Lone Pair

• AB6: Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)

Angle - FSF

No axial
No equatorial
All equivalent bonds

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
AB6 6 0 Octahedral Octahedral
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-7
 VSEPR:
Molecules
in Which
the Central Atom
Has No Lone Pair

Summary

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-8

Jump to long description
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pair

ABxEy
A: central atom
B: surrounding atom
E: lone pair on the A
x=2,3,…. and y=1,2,…..
x=1  linear geometry

Due to lone pairs on the

central atom, prediction of
bond angles not accurately

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-9

Jump to long description
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pair

• AB2E: Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

lone pair vs. bonding pair

repulsion
> bonding pair vs. bonding pair
repulsion
Angle – OSO < 120° (S-O bonds slightly pushed)

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
AB2E 2 1 Trigonal planar Bent
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-10
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pair

• AB3E: Ammonia (NH3)

Due to lone pair;

Angle – HNH < 109.5°
(ideal tetrahedral 109.5°)

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
AB3E 3 1 Tetrahedral Trigonal pyramidal
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-11
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pair

• AB2E2: Water (H2O)

Due to lone pairs;
Angle – HOH approx. 104.5° (< 109.5°)

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
AB2E2 2 2 Tetrahedral Bent
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-12
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pair
• AB4E: Sulfur Tetrafluoride (SF4)
Due to lone pair (a-equatorial, b-axial)
repulsion in (a) < repulsion in (b) [experimentally determined]
Angle – F-F (axial): 173° (<180°),
F-F (equatorial): 102° (<120°)

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
Distorted
Trigonal tetrahedron
AB4E 4 1
© McGraw-Hill Education. bipyramidal 10-13
(seesaw)
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pair

• AB3E2: Chlorine trifluoride (ClF3)

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
Trigonal
AB3E2 3 2 T-shaped
bipyramidal
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-14
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pair

• AB2E3: Triiodide Ion (l3-)

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
Trigonal
AB2E3 2 3 Linear
bipyramidal
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-15
 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pair
• AB5E: Bromine pentafluoride
(BrF5)

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
AB5E 5 1 Octahedral Square pyramidal

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-16

 VSEPR: Molecules in Which
the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pair

• AB4E2: Xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4)

# of atoms # lone Arrangement of Molecular

Class
bonded to central atom pairs on central atom electron pairs Geometry
AB4E2 4 2 Octahedral Square planar

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-17

 VSEPR:
Molecules
in Which
the Central Atom
Has One or More
Lone Pair

Summary

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-18

Jump to long description
 Example 10.1 (1 of 7)
Use the VSEPR model to predict the geometry of the following
molecules and ions: AsH3, OF2, AlCl4-, I3-, C2H4.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-19

 Example 10.1 (2 of 7)
Strategy
The sequence of steps in determining molecular geometry is as follows:

draw Lewis find arrangement of find arrangement determine geometry

  
structure electron pairs of bonding pairs based on bonding pairs

Solution
a) The Lewis structure of AsH3 is

There are four electron pairs around the central atom; therefore, the
electron pair arrangement is tetrahedral (see Table 10.1).

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-20

 Example 10.1 (3 of 7)
Recall that the geometry of a molecule is determined only by the
arrangement of atoms (in this case the As and H atoms). Thus,
removing the lone pair leaves us with three bonding pairs and a
trigonal pyramidal geometry, like NH3. We cannot predict the HAsH
angle accurately, but we know that it is less than 109.5 because the
repulsion of the bonding electron pairs in the As—H bonds by the lone
pair on As is greater than the repulsion between the bonding pairs.

b) The Lewis structure of OF2 is

There are four electron pairs around the central atom; therefore,
the electron pair arrangement is tetrahedral.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-21

 Example 10.1 (4 of 7)
Recall that the geometry of a molecule is determined only by
the arrangement of atoms (in this case the O and F atoms).
Thus, removing the two lone pairs leaves us with two
bonding pairs and a bent geometry, like H2O. We cannot
predict the FOF angle accurately, but we know that it must
be less than 109.5° because the repulsion of the bonding
electron pairs in the O – F bonds by the lone pairs on O is
greater than the repulsion between the bonding pairs.

c) The Lewis structure of AlCl4– is

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-22

 Example 10.1 (5 of 7)

There are four electron pairs around the central atom; therefore,
the electron pair arrangement is tetrahedral. Because there are
no lone pairs present, the arrangement of the bonding pairs is the
–
same as the electron pair arrangement. Therefore, AlCl4
has a tetrahedral geometry and the ClAlCl angles are all 109.5.

–
d) The Lewis structure of I3 is

There are five electron pairs around the central I atom;

therefore, the electron pair arrangement is trigonal bipyramidal.
Of the five electron pairs, three are lone pairs and two are
bonding pairs.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-23

 Example 10.1 (6 of 7)
Recall that the lone pairs preferentially occupy the equatorial
positions in a trigonal bipyramid (see Table 10.2). Thus,
removing the lone pairs leaves us with a linear geometry for ,
that is, all three I atoms lie in a straight line.

e) The Lewis structure of C2H4is

The C = C bond is treated as though it were a single bond in

the VSEPR model. Because there are three electron pairs
around each C atom and there are no lone pairs present,
the arrangement around each C atom has a trigonal planar
shape like BF3, discussed earlier.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-24
 Example 10.1 (7 of 7)
Thus, the predicted bond angles in C2H4 are all 120°.

Comment
–
1) The I3 ion
is one of the few structures for which the bond angle (180) can be
predicted accurately even though the central atom contains lone pairs.

2) In C2H4,all six atoms lie in the same plane. The overall planar geometry
is not predicted by the VSEPR model, but we will see why the molecule
prefers to be planar later. In reality, the angles are close, but not equal, to
120 because the bonds are not all equivalent.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-25

 Dipole Moments and Polar Molecules
Polar covalent bond
e- density shift towards F
F is more E.N.

field off field on

Charge
separation, • dipole moment present  polar
δ (delta) • dipole moment not present  nonpolar

µ=Q×r (µ: dipole moment)

Q is the charge
r is the distance between charges
1D (Debye) = 3.36×10−30 C.m
(C: coulomb, m: meter) Experimentally determined:
CO2 has
© McGraw-Hill
no dipole moment! So that it is linear!
Education. 10-26
Jump to long description Jump to long description
Bond moments and resultant dipole moments

• e- density
toward N
• larger • e- density toward F • Dipole moment is also used to
dipole atoms distinguish two different molecules
moment • lone pair offsets the with the same formula
dipole moment
• smaller dipole©moment
McGraw-Hill Education.
Jump to long description
10-27
Dipole Moments of Some Polar Molecules

Table10.3 Dipole Movements of Some Polar Molecules

Molecule Geometry Dipole Moment D 
HF Linear 1.92
HCl Linear 1.08
HBr Linear 0.78
HI Linear 0.38
H2O Bent 1.87
H2S Bent 1.10
NH3 Trigonal pyramidal 1.46
SO2 Bent 1.60

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-28

 Example 10.2 (1 of 6)
Predict whether each of the following molecules has a
dipole moment: BrCl, BF3 (trigonal planar), CH2Cl2
(tetrahedral).

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-29

 Example 10.2 (2 of 6)

Strategy
Keep in mind that the dipole moment of a molecule
depends on both the difference in electronegativities of
the elements present and its geometry.

A molecule can have polar bonds (if the bonded atoms

have different electronegativities), but it may not possess
a dipole moment if it has a highly symmetrical geometry.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-30

 Example 10.2 (3 of 6)
Solution
a) Because bromine chloride is diatomic, it has a linear geometry.
Chlorine is more electronegative than bromine (see Figure 9.5),
so BrCl is polar with chlorine at the negative end

Thus, the molecule does have a dipole moment. In fact, all

diatomic molecules containing different elements possess a
dipole moment.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-31
 Example 10.2 (4 of 6)
b) Because fluorine is more electronegative than boron, each
B−F bond in BF3 (boron trifluoride) is polar and the three
bond moments are equal. However, the symmetry of a
trigonal planar shape means that the three bond moments
exactly cancel one another:

An analogy is an object that is pulled in the directions shown

by the three bond moments. If the forces are equal, the object
will not move. Consequently, BF3 has no dipole moment; it is
a nonpolar molecule.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-32
 Example 10.2 (5 of 6)

c) The Lewis structure of CH2Cl2 (methylene chloride) is

This molecule is similar to CH4 in that it has an overall

tetrahedral shape. However, because not all the bonds are
identical, there are three different bond angles: HCH, HCCl, and
ClCCl. These bond angles are close to, but not equal to, 109.5°
.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-33
 Example 10.2 (6 of 6)

Because chlorine is more electronegative than carbon, which

is more electronegative than hydrogen, the bond moments do
not cancel and the molecule possesses a dipole moment:

Thus, CH2Cl2 is a polar molecule.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-34

 Valence Bond (VB) Theory:
H-H Covalent Bond Formation
Valence Bond (VB)
Theory assumes the
electrons occupy atomic
orbitals of the individual
atoms…
LewisH-H: pairing of
the two electrons
VB Theoryoverlapping
of the two 1s orbitals
(overlap: two orbitals share a
1) 2 H atoms far apart, PEsystem=0 common region in space)
2) Atoms approach each other, each e- is attracted by • Lewis ignores energy changes
nucleus, e- repel each other, and treats all covalent bonds
because of attraction > repulsion  PEsystem decreases
the same way
3) This trend continues until PE reaches minimum!
• VB theory explains
4) If distance were to decrease further, PE would
differences in bond entalpies
increase (e--e- and nuclear-nuclear repulsions)
and bond lengths
Bond formation; PE↓ energy release, bond breaking; energy is supplied.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-35
Jump to long description Jump to long description
 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
Hybridization – mixing of two or more atomic orbitals to form
a new set of hybrid orbitals

1. Mix at least 2 nonequivalent atomic orbitals (e.g. s and p).

Hybrid orbitals have very different shape from original
atomic orbitals.
2. Number of hybrid orbitals is equal to number of pure
atomic orbitals used in the hybridization process.
3. Covalent bonds are formed by:
a. Overlap of hybrid orbitals with atomic orbitals
b. Overlap of hybrid orbitals with other hybrid orbitals
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-36
sp3 Hybridization

CH4 (Methane)
C:

(one s orbital
three p orbitals)

C-H  (1 sp3 hybrid orbital of C) + (1 1s orbital of H) : 4 of them form CH4

CH4  tetrahedral, HCH: 109.5°
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-37
 Covalent Bonds in CH4 and NH3

Draw hybridization of N and N-H bond formation…

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-38

 BeCl2 (Beryllium chloride) sp Hybridization
Be:

Be-Cl  (1 sp hybrid orbital of Be) + (1 3p orbital of Cl) : 2 of them form BeCl2

BeCl2  linear, ClBeCl: 180°
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-39
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-40
BF3 (Boron trifluoride) sp2 Hybridization
B:

B-F  (1 sp2 hybrid orbital of B) +

(1 2p orbital of F) : 3 of them form BF3
BF3  trigonal planar, FBF: 120°

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-41

 How do I predict the hybridization of the
central atom?
1. Draw the Lewis structure of #of Lone Pairs
+
the molecule.
# of Bonded Atoms Hybridization Examples
2. Predict the overall
arrangement of the electron 2 sp BeCl2
pairs (both bonding pairs
3 sp 2 BF3
and lone pairs) using the
VSEPR model
4 sp3 CH4 , NH3 , H2O
3. Count the number of lone
pairs and the number of 5 sp3d PCl5

atoms bonded to the central

6 sp3d 2 SF6
atom
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-42
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-43
 Important Hybrid Orbitals

Important Hybrid Orbitals

and Their Shapes

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-44

Jump to long description
 Example 10.3 (1 of 8)
Determine the hybridization state of the central (underlined)
atom in each of the following molecules: BeH2, AlI3, PF3.
Describe the hybridization process and determine the
molecular geometry in each case.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-45

 Example 10.3 (2 of 8)

Strategy
The steps for determining the hybridization of the central atom in a
molecule are:

use VSEPR to determine the use Table 10.4 to

draw Lewis structure
electron pair arrangement determine the
of the molecule  
surrounding the central atom hybridization state of
(Table 10.1) the central atom

Solution
2 2
a) The ground-state electron configuration of Be is 1s 2s and the
Be atom has two valence electrons. The Lewis structure of BeH2 is
H―Be―H

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-46

 Example 10.3 (3 of 8)
There are two bonding pairs around Be; therefore, the electron
pair arrangement is linear. We conclude that Be uses sp hybrid
orbitals in bonding with H, because sp orbitals have a linear
arrangement (see Table 10.4). The hybridization process can be
imagined as follows. First, we draw the orbital diagram for the
ground state of Be:

By promoting a 2s electron to the 2p orbital, we get the excited

state:
 
2s 2p
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-47
 Example 10.3 (4 of 8)

The 2s and 2p orbitals then mix to form two hybrid orbitals:

The two Be−H bonds are formed by the overlap of the Be

sp orbitals with the 1s orbitals of the H atoms. Thus, BeH2 is
a linear molecule.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-48

 Example 10.3 (5 of 8)

b) The ground-state electron configuration of Ne3s 2 3 p1. Therefore,

the Al atom has three valence electrons. The Lewis structure of
AlI3 is

There are three pairs of electrons around Al; therefore, the electron
2
pair arrangement is trigonal planar. We conclude that Al uses sp
hybrid orbitals in bonding with I because sp 2 orbitals have a trigonal
planar arrangement. The orbital diagram of the ground-state Al atom is

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-49

 Example 10.3 (6 of 8)

By promoting a 3s electron into the 3p orbital we obtain the

following excited state:
  
3s 3p
The 3s and two 3p orbitals then mix to form three sp 2 hybrid
orbitals:

The sp2 hybrid orbitals overlap with the 5p orbitals of I to form

three covalent Al−I bonds. We predict that the AlI3 molecule is
trigonal planar and all the lAll angles are 120°.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-50
 Example 10.3 (7 of 8)

c) The ground-state electron configuration of P is Ne 3s 2 3 p3 .

Therefore, P atom has five valence electrons. The Lewis structure
of PF3 is

There are four pairs of electrons around P; therefore, the electron pair
3
arrangement is tetrahedral. We conclude that P uses sp hybrid
orbitals in bonding to F, because sp3 orbitals
have a tetrahedral arrangement. The hybridization process can be
imagined to take place as follows. The orbital diagram of the ground-
state P atom is

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-51

 Example 10.3 (8 of 8)
By mixing the 3s and 3p orbitals, we obtain four sp3 hybrid
orbitals.

As in the case of NH3 , one of the sp3 hybrid orbitals is

used to accommodate the lone pair on P. The other three
sp3 hybrid orbitals form covalent P – F bonds with the 2p
orbitals of F. We predict the geometry of the molecule to
be trigonal pyramidal; the F – F angle should be
somewhat less than 109.5°.
Jump to long description
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-52
 Hybridization of s, p, and d Orbitals

S-F  (1 sp3d2 hybrid orbital of S) + (1 2p orbital of F) : 6 of them form SF6

SF6  sp3d2 hbridization, octahedral, F-S (axial) - F-S (equatorial): 90°
12 e- around the S atom  Expanded Octet!

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-53

 Example 10.4 (1 of 4)
Describe the hybridization state of phosphorus in
phosphorus pentabromide PBr5  .

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-54

 Example 10.4 (2 of 4)

Strategy
Follow the same procedure shown in Example 10.3.

Solution
The ground-state electron configuration of P is Ne 3s 2 3 p3.
Therefore, the P atom has five valence electrons. The Lewis structure
of PBr5 is

There are five pairs of electrons around P; therefore, the electron pair
arrangement is trigonal bipyramidal. We conclude that P uses sp3d hybrid
orbitals in bonding to Br, because sp3d hybrid orbitals have a trigonal
bipyramidal arrangement.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-55
 Example 10.4 (3 of 4)
The hybridization process can be imagined as follows. The
orbital diagram of the ground-state P atom is

Promoting a 3s electron into a 3d orbital results in the

following excited state:

    
3s 3p 3d

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-56

 Example 10.4 (4 of 4)

Mixing the one 3s, three 3p, and one 3d orbitals generates five
sp3d hybrid orbitals:

These hybrid orbitals overlap the 4p orbitals of Br to form five

covalent P – Br bonds. Because there are no lone pairs on the P
atom, the geometry of PBr5 is trigonal bipyramidal.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-57

 Hybridization in Molecules Containing
Double and Triple Bonds
sp2 Hybridization of Carbon (C2H4 - Ethylene)
Unhybridized 2pz
orbital (gray), which is
perpendicular to the
plane of the hybrid
(green) orbitals.

C-H  (1 sp2 hybrid orbital of C) +

(1 1s orbital of H) : 4 of them form 4 C-H

C-C (σ)  (1 sp2 hybrid orbital of C) +

(1 sp2 hybrid orbital of the adjacent C)
forms 1 C-C

C-C (π)  2 unhybrizied 2pz orbitals of C

overlap sideway  1 additional bond
Jump to long © McGraw-Hill Education. Jump to long 10-58
description description
 Sigma (σ) and Pi (π) Bonds
Sigma bond (σ) – electron density between
the 2 atoms
Pi bond (π) – electron density above and
below plane of nuclei of the bonding atoms
Single bond 1 sigma bond
Double bond 1 sigma bond and 1 pi bond
Triple bond 1 sigma bond and 2 pi bonds

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-59

Jump to long description Jump to long description
 Hybridization in Molecules Containing
Double and Triple Bonds
sp Hybridization of Carbon (C2H2 - Acetylene)
C-H  (1 sp hybrid orbital of C) +
(1 1s orbital of H) 2 of them form 2 C-H (σ)

C-C  (1 sp hybrid orbital of C) +

(1 sp hybrid orbital of the adjacent C) form
1 C-C (σ)

C-C  sideways overlap of the

unhybridized 2py and 2pz orbitals; 2 C-C (π)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-60

Jump to long description Jump to long description
 Example 10.5 (1 of 3)
Describe the bonding in the (Assume that
formaldehyde molecule the O atom is
whose Lewis structure is sp2 −hybridized)

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-61

 Example 10.5 (2 of 3)
Strategy
Follow the procedure shown in Example 10.3.

Solution
There are three pairs of electrons around the C atom; therefore, the electron
pair arrangement is trigonal planar. (Recall that a double bond is treated as a
single bond in the VSEPR model.) We conclude that C uses sp 2 hybrid orbitals
in bonding, because sp 2 hybrid orbitals have a trigonal planar arrangement.
We can imagine the hybridization processes for C and O as follows:

Jump to long description

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-62
 Example 10.5 (3 of 3)
Carbon has one electron in each of the three sp 2 orbitals, which
are used to form sigma bonds with the H atoms and the O atom.
There is also an electron in the 2pz orbital, which forms a pi bond
with oxygen. Oxygen has two electrons in two of its sp 2 hybrid
orbitals. These are the lone pairs on oxygen. Its third sp 2 hybrid
orbital with one electron is used to form a sigma bond with
carbon. The 2pz orbital (with one electron) overlaps with the 2pz
orbital of C to form a pi bond.

Jump to long description

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-63
Appendix of Image Long Descriptions

© McGraw-Hill Education.
10-64
VSEPR (3 of 4) Long Description (1 of 2)
The equitorial electron pairs are all 120 degrees apart. An
axial electron pair and an equitorial electron pair are 90
degrees apart.

Jump to image

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-65

VSEPR (3 of 4) Long Description (2 of 2)
The equitorial bonding pairs are all 120 degrees apart. An
axial bonding pair and an equitorial bonding pair are 90
degrees apart.

Jump to image

© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-66

 Phosphorus Pentachloride Long
Description
The angle between an axial bond and an equitorial
bond is 90 degrees, and the angle between two
equitorial bonds is 120 degrees.

Jump to image
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-67
Summary of VSEPR Long Description

When a molecule has two bonds, the bonds are 180° apart,
and the shape is linear.
When a molecule has three bonds, the bonds are 120° apart,
and the shape is trigonal planar.
When a molecule has four bonds, the bonds are 109.5° apart,
and the shape is tetrahedral.
When a molecule has five bonds, two bonds occupy axial
positions, and three bonds occupy equitorial positions. The
axial-equitorial bond angle is 90°, and the equitorial-equitorial
bond angle is 120°. The shape is trigonal bipyramidal.
When a molecule has six bonds, the bonds are 90° apart, and
the shape is octahedral.
Jump to image
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-68
Tetrahedral Bond Angles Long Description

If a molecule has four bonding pairs, the bond angle between

bonding pairs is 109.5 degrees. If a molecule has three
bonding pairs and a lone pair, the lone pair repels the bonding
pairs. The bond angle between bonding pairs is less than 109.5
degrees (in NH3, it's 107.3 degrees). If a molecule has two
bonding pairs and two lone pairs, the lone pairs repel the
bonding pairs. The bond angle between bonding pairs is much
less than 109.5 degrees (in water, it is 104.5 degrees).

Jump to image
© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-69
 Summary of Molecular Shapes Long
Description
When a molecule has two bonds and one lone pair, the shape is
bent.
When a molecule has three bonds and one lone pair, the shape is
trigonal pyramidal. When a molecule has two bonds and two lone
pairs, the shape is bent.
When a molecule has four bonds and one lone pair, the shape is
seesaw. When a molecule has three bonds and two lone pairs, the
shape is T-shaped. When a molecule has two bonds and three
lone pairs, the shape is linear.
When a molecule has five bonds and one lone pair, the shape is
square pyramidal. When a molecule has four bonds and two lone
pairs, the shape is square planar.
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Dipole Moments and Polar Molecules
Long Description

The electron rich region of the molecule is partially

negatively charged, and the electron poor region of the
molecule is partially positively charged.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-71
 Behavior of Polar Molecules Long
Description
The partial negative end of the molecule is aligned with the positive
magnet, and the partial positive end of the molecule is aligned with
the negative magnet. The partial positive and negative ends of the
molecule also align with the partial negative and positive ends of
adjacent molecules, respectively.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-72
 Bond moments and resultant dipole
moments in NH3 and NF3 Long
Description
In NH3, N is more polar than H, so the electron density is
shifted toward the N. The resultant dipole is 1.46 D. In NF3, F
is more polar than N, so the electron density is shifted toward
the three F atoms. The resultant dipole is 0.24 D. The
difference is because the electron density is spread over
three F atoms in NF3 versus one N atom in NH3.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-73
Chemistry In Action: Microwave Ovens
Long Description
If the phase of the rotation matches the phase of the
electric field, the molecule will rotate faster. Nonpolar
molecules will not respond to the electric field.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-74
 Change in Potential Energy of Two
Hydrogen Atoms as a Function of Their
Distance of Separation Long Description
As the two atoms move closer together, a bond forms
between the two atoms, and the potential energy of the
molecule is negative.

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 Change in Electron Density as Two
Hydrogen Atoms Approach Each Other
Long Description
As the atoms come closer together, electron density begins to
centralize between the two atoms as the bond is formed. When the
bond forms, the electron density of the molecule is greatest in the
middle, about the bond.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-76
 Important Hybrid Orbitals Long
Description
When a molecule has two electron groups, the hybrid sp orbitals
are 180° apart.
When a molecule has three electron groups, the hybrid sp2
orbitals are 120° apart.
When a molecule has four electron groups, the hybrid sp3
orbitals are 109.5° apart.
When a molecule has five electron groups, two sp3d orbitals
occupy axial positions, and three sp3d orbitals occupy equitorial
positions. The axial-equitorial angle is 90°, and the equitorial-
equitorial angle is 120°.
When a molecule has six electron groups, the hybrid sp3d2
orbitals are 90° apart.

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Example 10.3 (8 of 8) Long Description

Three of the sp3 orbitals have one electron, and one of the sp3
orbitals has two electrons. The sp3 orbital with two electrons is
the sp3 orbital of the lone pair on P.

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Hybridization of Carbon Long Description

When an electron is promoted from the 2s to the 2p and

hybridized to form sp2 orbitals, three sp2 hybrid orbitals are
formed, and one 2p orbital is left over. There is one electron in
each of the three sp2 orbitals and one electron in the
unhybridized 2p orbital.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-79
 Bonding in Ethylene, C2H4 Long
Description
These overlaps result in five sigma bonds: four C-H bonds and
one C-C bond.
The electron in the p orbital of each C atom overlaps in a side-
on fashion. The side-on overlap results in a pi bond, with
electron density above and below the sigma bond of the two C
atoms.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-80

Another View of  Bonding in Ethylene,
C2H4 Long Description
As a result, the electron rich region of the molecule is
above and below the plane of the molecule, and an electron
poor region results at the H ends of the molecule.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-81
 sp Hybridization of Carbon Long
Description

This process leaves an electron in each of the two

unhybridized 2 P orbitals, namely, the 2 P Y and 2 P Z
orbitals.

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 Bonding in Acetylene, C2H2 Long
Description
These overlaps result in three sigma bonds: two C-H bonds
and one C-C bond.
The electrons in the two p orbitals of each C atom overlap in a
side-on fashion. The side-on overlap results in two pi bonds,
with electron density above and below the sigma bond of the
two C atoms and electron density in front of and behind the
sigma bond of the two C atoms.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-83
Example 10.5 (2 of 3) Long Description

Each has one electron. O forms three sp2 hybrid orbitals and
one unhybridized 2p orbital. Each has one electron.

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© McGraw-Hill Education. 10-84
Example 10.5 (3 of 3) Long Description

There are three sigma bonds in the molecule: two C-

H sigma bonds and a sigma bond between C and O.

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 End of Presentation

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reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 10-86