Research Design:

Can be defined as:

a. Overall strategy utilized to carry out research that defines a concise
and logical plan to tackle established research question(s) through
the collection, interpretation, analysis, and discussion of data.
b. Blueprint of the research for the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data that researcher chooses in a coherent and logical
way in order to ensure that researcher will effectively address the
research problem
c. Framework for planning research and answering research questions.
Contents of Research Design:
The most common aspects involved in research design include at least
followings:
1. Statement of research objectives, i.e., why the research project is to be
conducted

2. Type of data needed

3. Definition of population and sampling procedures to be followed

4. Time, costs, and responsibility specification

5. Methods, ways, and procedures used for collection of data

6. Data analysis – tools or methods used to analyze data

7. Probable output or research outcomes and possible actions to be taken

based on those outcomes
Factors Affecting Research Design

The following factors affect the design of research:

1. The nature of the study;

2. The scope of the study
3. The level of the study
4. Availability of sufficient data;
5. Proper exposure to the sources of data, especially primary data;
6. Availability of time;
7. Availability of money and manpower;
8. Impact of the various internal and external as well as controllable and
uncontrollable variables on the research project;
9. The ability, skill, knowledge, and technical background of the
researcher; and
10. Utility and applicability of the research result in practice.

Creating a research design means making decisions about:

 The type of data researchers need

 The location and timescale of the research
 The participants and sources
 The variables and hypotheses (if relevant)
 The methods for collecting and analyzing data

Types of Research Design:

1. Descriptive research design: In a descriptive design, a researcher

is solely interested in describing the situation or case under their
research study. It is a theory-based design method which is created
by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data.  It can
answer what, where, when and how questions, but
not why questions. Descriptive design helps others better understand
the need for the research. If the problem statement is not clear, you
can conduct exploratory research. 

A. To describe the characteristics of certain groups

For example, a research group gathered information from individuals who
had eaten at a particular barbecue restaurant chain in a Pokhara to help
managers develop a profile of the “average user” with respect to income,
sex, age, and so on. The managers were surprised to learn that about half
of their customers were women; they had started with the mistaken belief
that a clear majority of their customers were men.

B. To determine the proportion of people who behave in a certain way

For example, in estimating the proportion of people within a specified

radius of a proposed shopping complex who currently shop or intend to
shop at the center.

C. To make specific predictions

To predict the level of sales for each of the next five years so that we could
plan for the hiring and training of new sales representatives.

D. To determine relationships between variables

It is common to use descriptive research to examine differences between

groups (awareness levels for our product are higher for men than for
women in the target market).

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research design are:

1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research design is a quantitative

research design that attempts to collect quantifiable information for
statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular research
design tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic
segment’s nature.
2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research design, none of the
variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational
methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the
variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research design is generally a
cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the
same group are studied.
4. The basis for further research: Researchers further research the
data collected and analyzed from descriptive research using
different research techniques. The data can also help point towards
the types of research methods used for the subsequent research.

2. Experimental research design: Experimental research design

establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation.
It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by the
independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one
monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on
a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty.
It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes to
solving a problem at hand. The independent variables are
manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable.
It is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by
analyzing two groups. Researchers can have participants change
their actions and study how the people around them react to gain a
better understanding of social psychology.

3. Correlational research design: Correlational research is a non-

experimental research design technique that helps researchers
establish a relationship between two closely connected variables.
This type of research requires two different groups. There is no
assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different
variables, and statistical analysis techniques calculate the
relationship between them.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two

variables, whose value ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation
coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship between
the variables and -1 means a negative relationship between the two
variables. 

4. Diagnostic research design: In diagnostic design, the researcher is

looking to evaluate the underlying cause of a specific topic or
phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the factors
 that create troublesome situations. Diagnostic research studies determine
the frequency with which something occurs or its association with
something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are
associated are examples of diagnostic research studies.

This design has three parts of the research:

· Inception of the issue

· Diagnosis of the issue

· Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory research design: Explanatory design uses a

researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a subject to further explore their
theories. The research explains unexplored aspects of a subject and
details about what, how, and why of research questions.

It is used to discover ideas and insights to generate possible explanations. It

helps in exploring the problem or situation. It is emphasized to break a
broad vague problem statement into smaller pieces or sub-problem
statements that help forming specific hypothesis.

The hypothesis is a conjectural (imaginary, speculative, or abstract)

statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Naturally,
in initial state of the study, we lack sufficient understanding about problem
to formulate a specific hypothesis. Similarly, we have several competitive
explanations of marketing phenomenon. Exploratory research design is
used to establish priorities among those competitive explanations.

The exploratory research design is used to increase familiarity of the

analyst with problem under investigation. This is particularly true when
researcher is new in area, or when problem is of different type.
This design is followed to realize following purposes:
1. Clarifying concepts and defining problem

2. Formulating problem for more precise investigation

3. Increasing researcher’s familiarity with problem

4. Developing hypotheses

5. Establishing priorities for further investigation

Exploratory research design is characterized by flexibility to gain insights

and develop hypotheses. It does not follow a planned questionnaire or
sampling. It is based on literature survey, experimental survey, and analysis
of selected cases. Unstructured interviews are used to offer respondents a
great deal of freedom. No research project is purely and solely based on this
design. It is used as complementary to descriptive design and causal design.

5. Longitudinal Research Design

Longitudinal research design is a type of research design that involves looking

at variables over an extended period of time. This type of study can take place
over a period of weeks, months, or even years. In some cases, longitudinal
studies can last several decades. Longitudinal studies are usually observational
in nature.

Types of Longitudinal Research

There are three major types of longitudinal studies:

 Panel study: Involves sampling a cross-section of individuals.

 Cohort study: Involves selecting a group based on a specific event such as
birth, geographic location, or historical experience.
  Retrospective study: Involves looking to the past by looking at historical
information such as medical records.

Advantages of Longitudinal Research Design:

 It can identify and relate to events. You can reveal chronology
between events like long-term and short-term changes in variables,
making this ideal for medical studies.
 It helps identify and establish a particular sequence of events.
 It provides meaningful insights that might not be possible with other
research types like cross-sectional and similar studies.
 It allows researchers to trace development over a timeline instead of
drawing conclusions based on a “snapshot” of data.
Disadvantages:
 It is expensive and time consuming.
 Participants tend to leave the research.
Example of Longitudinal Research: Consider a study conducted to
understand the similarities or differences between identical twins who are
brought up together versus identical twins who were not. The study
observes several variables, but the constant is that the participants all have
an identical twin.

In this case, researchers would want to observe these participants from

childhood to adulthood understand how growing up in different
environments influences traits, habits, and personality. Over many years,
researchers can see both sets of twins as they experience life without
intervention. Because the participants share the same genes, it is assumed
that any differences are due to environmental factors, but only attentive
study can conclude.

6. Cross-Sectional Research Design

A cross-sectional research design is the type of research design which involves

looking at data from a population at one specific point in time. 

Characteristics of Cross-Sectional Research Design:

 The study takes place at a single point in time

 It does not involve manipulating variables
  It allows researchers to look at numerous characteristics at once (age,
income, gender, etc.)
 It's often used to look at the prevailing characteristics in a given population
 It can provide information about what is happening in a current population

Types of Cross-Sectional Research Design:

 An analytical study tries to answer how or why a certain outcome

might occur.
 A descriptive study only summarizes said outcome using descriptive
statistics.

Benefits of cross-sectional studies

 Relatively quick to conduct.
 Researchers can collect all variables at one time.
 Multiple outcomes can be researched at once.
 Prevalence for all factors can be measured.
 Suitable for descriptive analysis.
 Researchers can use it as a catalyst for further research.

Disadvantages:

 Doesn’t conclude cause and effect relationship.

 Doesn’t tell about cohort differences.
 Can report biasness

Examples of Cross Sectional: Another example of a cross-sectional study

would be a medical study examining the prevalence of cancer amongst a
defined population. The researcher can evaluate people of different ages,
ethnicities, geographical locations, and social backgrounds. If a significant
number of men from a particular age group are more prone to have the
disease, the researcher can conduct further studies to understand its
reasons. A longitudinal study is best to use in this case, to study the same
participants over time.  
 Cross-sectional study Longitudinal study

Cross-sectional studies are quick to conduct Longitudinal studies may vary from a few
as compared to longitudinal studies.   years to even decades.
A longitudinal study requires a researcher to
A cross-sectional study is conducted at a
revisit participants of the study at proper
given point in time.
intervals.
Cross-sectional study is conducted with Longitudinal study is conducted with the
different samples. same sample over the years.  
Cross-sectional studies cannot pin down Longitudinal study can justify cause-and-
cause-and-effect relationship. effect relationship.
Multiple variables can be studied at a single Only one variable is considered to conduct
point in time. the study.
Cross-sectional study is comparatively Since the study goes on for years longitudinal
cheaper. study tends to get expensive.

Longitudinal study Cross-sectional study

Repeated observations Observations at a single point in time

Longitudinal study Cross-sectional study

Observes the same group multiple times Observes different groups (a “cross-section”) in

Follows changes in participants over time Provides snapshot of society at a given point

Variable
A variable is any property, a characteristic, a number, or a quantity that
increases or decreases over time or can take on different values in different
situations.
In research, variables are any characteristics that can take on different
values, such as height, age, species, or exam score.
For example:
- heart rate,
- the heights of adult males,
- the weights of preschool children,
- the ages of patients seen in a dental clinic.
Types of Variable;
Independent variable: It is a type of variable that researcher manipulate in
order to affect the outcome of an experiment If the variable is not influenced
by other variables then known as independent variables. Independent variables are
always cause.
Dependent variable: Variables that represent the outcome of the experiment.
The values of the dependent variable depend upon another variable (the
independent variable). Dependent variables are effect.

Moderating Variables:
It is defined as the type of variable which changes the nature of a
relationship between the original independent and dependent variables. In
other words, a variable that influences, or moderates, the relation between
two other variables and thus produces an interaction effect.
Intervening Variable:
An intervening variable is a variable that helps explain the relationship
between two variables (dependent and independent). 

Control Variable
A control variable is a variable that is held constant to prevent it from
influencing the outcome of a study.

Extraneous or Confounding Variable Variable:

It is defined as the type of variable which is not the independent variable nor the
part of the study but may affect the dependent variable or result of the study.
Independent vs dependent vs control variables

Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance

experiment)

Independent variables (aka Variables that researcher The amount of salt added to

treatment variables) manipulate in order to affect each plant’s water.
the outcome of an
experiment.

Dependent variables (aka Variables that represent the Any measurement of plant

response variables) outcome of the experiment. health and growth: in this
case, plant height and
wilting.

Control variables Variables that are held The temperature and light in
constant throughout the the room the plants are kept
experiment. in, and the volume of water
given to each plant.

Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance experiment)

Confounding A variable that hides the true effect of Pot size and soil type might affect
variables another variable in your experiment. plant survival as much or more than
This can happen when another variable salt additions. In an experiment you
is closely related to a variable you are would control these potential
Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance experiment)

interested in, but you haven’t confounders by holding them

controlled it in your experiment. constant.

Latent variables A variable that can’t be directly Salt tolerance in plants cannot be
measured, but that you represent via a measured directly, but can be
proxy. inferred from measurements of
plant health in our salt-addition
experiment.

Composite A variable that is made by combining The three plant health variables
variables multiple variables in an experiment. could be combined into a single
These variables are created when you plant-health score to make it easier
analyze data, not when you measure it. to present your findings.

Some useful types of variable are listed below.

Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance

experiment)

Confounding A variable that hides the true effect of Pot size and soil type might affect
variables another variable in research. This can plant survival as much or more
happen when another variable is closely than salt additions. In an
related to a variable researcher experiment you would control
interested in, but researcher hasn’t these potential confounders by
controlled it in research. holding them constant.

Latent variables A variable that can’t be directly Salt tolerance in plants cannot be
measured, but that represent via a measured directly, but can be
representation. inferred from measurements of
plant health in our salt-addition
Type of variable Definition Example (salt tolerance
experiment)

experiment.

Composite A variable that is made by combining The three plant health variables
variables multiple variables in research. These could be combined into a single
variables are created when researchers plant-health score to make it easier
analyze data, not when researchers to present your findings.
measure it.

Examples of independent and dependent variables

Research Question Independent variable(s) Dependent variable(s)

Do tomatoes grow fastest under  The type of light the  The rate of growth
fluorescent, incandescent, or natural tomato plant is grown of the tomato plant
light? under

What is the effect of diet and regular  The type of soda you  Your blood sugar
soda on blood sugar levels? drink (diet or regular) levels

How does phone use before bedtime 1. The amount of phone 1. Number of hours of
affect sleep? use before bed sleep
2. Quality of sleep

How well do different plant species 1. The amount of salt 1. Plant growth
tolerate salt water? added to the plants’ 2. Plant wilting
water 3. Plant survival rate

Importance of Research:
1. Progress and good life: The importance of all research is progress
and good life. Progress results if the space of ignorance is occupied
by knowledge and wisdom. The latter are the results of good
research. Knowledge and wisdom drive the mankind to live an orderly
good life.
2. Development of scientific attitude: One of the importance’s of
research is to develop scientific attitude. Scientific attitude is one that
asks ‘Why’ and ‘How’ and answers are found. This ‘Know-why’ and
‘Know-how’ attitude nurtures talents and such intellectual talents are
the great assets of society.
3. Creativity and innovativeness: One of the importance’s of research is
encouragement to creativity and innovation. New products, new
processes and new uses are the means through which the world
goes dynamic. A dynamic world is not possible without newness
introduced every now and then in every walk of life. And this is
possible only through creativity and innovation. Research kindles the
creativity and innovative instincts of people and thus experiments on
the possibility of new things instead of waiting for the accidental and
slow experience path to creativity and innovation.
4. Testing hypothesis and establishing theories: A very important
function of research is testing of hypothesis and establishing theories.
As was already pointed out knowledge is power. That knowledge
comes from testing hypotheses and establishing new theories.
Proven hypotheses become theories.
5. Prediction and Control: Applied research has a great say in prediction
and control-in almost all walks of human endeavor   Prediction is
jumping into the future and the theories constitute the launch pad.
Control looks for deviation between actual happening and predicted
happening. In the process, the theories get reevaluated and
redefined.
6. Purposive development: Development = Growth + Change, Growth is
uni-scaled while change is multi-scaled. In the natural process
development does take place through trial and error through casual
observations, through actual exposure and the like. But this is
evolutionary and time consuming. Revolutionary development takes
fourth through discontinuous change. Research is the seed of such
dichotomous charge or even disruptive change which contributes to
purposive development.
7. Problem Solving: The importance of any research is problem solving.
What is a problem? Problem is deprivation or depreciation of
 something. Knowledge deprivation, efficiency deprivation, productivity
depreciation, etc exist. How can these be solved? Research into the
forces that cause deprivation and measures to contain them from
causing deprivation is needed. Thus, problem solving is a great
purpose of research.
8. Schematic Evaluation: Research is also carried, out to systematically
evaluate a process or practice or an organisation to know its
strengths and weaknesses so that areas for improvement process
can be identified.
9. Impact Analysis: Research is undertaken to assess the impact of
certain measures or change introduced on relevant variables. Impact
studies are useful for biological, social, business, economic and other
areas of decision making.
10. Methodological Improvement: Another importance of research
is improving research methodology itself. Developments in the field of
measurement and scaling are immense. Whether these can be
appropriately used in the case of particular research areas? To
answer the question research needs to be done. Validation,
revalidation and devalidation of methodological aspects thus
constitute good piece of research. And this is one of the purposes of
research. In fact, any research has a responsibility towards
contribution to methodological enrichment.

Research in Social Change:

Problems solving is the thrust of most researches. Social problems are felt directly
by people and that research by offering solutions to such problems ameliorates
the conditions of people at large. Hence the significance of research.
Research thrusts on societal  behavior  which is studied, analysed and steps
needed to modify the same to achieve certain broad goals. All our social problems
could be attributed to certain societal  behavior. So, by modifying the same in the
right lines, social good is achieved.
Development of methodology to deal with social issues is one of the contributions
of research. Executive stress, worker ethics, leadership style, child labor, women
illiteracy, drug addiction,  labor  absenteeism, etc are social issues related to
organisations, labor units, and, such other social groups. To deal with these issues
appropriate methodology is needed. Research provides the same.
Research contributes to societal development. The research develops scientific
temper. Creativity and innovation are developed Basic and applied new
knowledge is developed. All this adds to  up-gradation  of society. Knowledge is
power. And that power is powered by research.
Formulation of new theories and reevaluation of already accepted theories are
attempted by research. There are several theories on leadership, motivation,
human attitude and  behavior  and so on. All these theories help designing
suitable packages for societal  behavioral  upliftment.
Social Cohesion and Unity. Social unity in a problematic area b/w two groups
or castes is only possible due to research. Research manifests the causes
of these events and gives a remedial solution to it. So, researcher is the
main factor for bringing social coherence and unity in society.
Social Planning. If someone wants to develop and bring social growth and
development in a society, social planning will be developed which is the
outcome of research. In this situation achieve the growth of society on
right line is highly necessary. Social growth can possible only when
problems are solved.
Solution of Social Problems. Research also helps in the solution of social
problems it is the research through which we can find the causative factors
of an existing social problem and guide us about his solution.
Structural Changes.  Research is responsible for bringing structural changes
in a social life. We bring social and cultural change in a social situation
which is the outcome of research.
Social Welfare. Social evils can be removed from society due to research.
The process of social welfare is possible due to the procedure of research
through which social evils can be removed.
Social Prediction.  Research helps in making laws and the relation between
social laws and their factors. It helps to know the existence of causative
factors and their magnitude and this facilitates prediction of results.
Social Control. For smooth running of society social control is necessary.
For this purpose we apply research to a society for bringing social order
and control.
Social Growth. The growth and development in a society is possible for the
improvement of living standard and it is the main function of research.
New Techniques.  l Research introduces new techniques and improves the
old ones. It also modifies the existing tools of research. It gives us the
methods of knowing new ways for using our research procedure.

Sampling:
Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part
of a population for the purpose of determining the characteristics of the
whole population. In other words, the process of selecting a sample from a
population using special sampling techniques called sampling. It should be
ensured in the sampling process itself that the sample selected is
representative of the population.

A good sample is one which satisfies all or few of the following conditions:

1. Representativeness: When sampling method is adopted by the

researcher, the basic assumption is that the samples so selected out
of the population are the best representative of the population under
study. Thus good samples are those who accurately represent the
population. Probability sampling technique yield representative
samples. On measurement terms, the sample must be valid. The
validity of a sample depends upon its accuracy.
2. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent
from the sample. An accurate (unbiased) sample is one which exactly
represents the population. It is free from any influence that causes
any differences between sample value and population value.
3. Size: A good sample must be adequate in size and reliable. The
sample size should be such that the interpretations drawn from the
 sample are accurate to a given level of confidence to represent the
entire population under study.

The size of sample depends on number of factors. Some important among

them are:

1. Homogeneity or Heterogeneity of the universe: Selection of sample

depends on the nature of the universe. It says that if the nature of
universe is homogeneous then a small sample will represent the
behavior of entire universe. This will lead to selection of small sample
size rather than a large one. On the other hand, if the universe is
heterogeneous in nature then samples are to be chosen as from each
heterogeneous unit.
2. Number of classes proposed: If a large number of class intervals to
be made then the size of sample should be more because it has to
represent the entire universe. In case of small samples there is the
possibility that some samples may not be included.
3. Nature of study: The size of sample also depends on the nature of
study. For an intensive study which may be for a long time, large
samples are to be chosen. Similarly, in case of general studies large
number of respondents may be appropriate one but if the study is of
technical in nature then the selection of large number of respondents
may cause difficulty while gathering information.

Steps involved in the Scientific Research:

a. Sensing or Realizing the Problem
If researcher thinks that things are not going smoothly, there may be something
wrong. So, the first step in any scientific research is observing the situation and
sensing the problem.
b. Research Problem Identification;
It is the most important step in the research process. A research problem is a
specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap in knowledge that researcher
will aim to address in his/her research. A research problem identifies the
destination of the research. Researcher should identify what exactly are the
problems or issues in the situation. Well defined problem means the completion of
the half research work. If the research problem is unclear and poorly defined, the
result could take a lot of time and resources will be wasted on gathering potentially
useless information and data. Without a well-defined research problem,
researcher is likely to end up with an unfocused and unmanageable project
and also might end up repeating what other people have already said

c. Theoretical Framework:

A theoretical framework consists of concepts, together with their definitions, and

existing theory/theories that are used for research. It focuses about the depth of
subject matter under study.
Before researcher starts research, he/she explores what theories and
models other researchers have already developed. The goal of a
theoretical framework is to present and explain this information.

There may be many existing different theories about the research, so the
theoretical framework also involves evaluating, comparing, and selecting
the most relevant ones.

It attempts to integrate the information logically so that the reason for the
problem can be conceptualized. The critical variables are examined and the
association among them is identified. All the dependent and independent
variables with their association are shown logically to develop the theoretical
framework. This part of research lays the foundations that will support
researcher’s analysis, helping to interpret results and make broader
generalizations.
d. Hypothesis Formulation
It is the pre-assumed statement to show the relationship between two or more
variables expressed in testable form. It is stated on the basis of theoretical
framework. A hypothesis is not just a guess — it should be based on
existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means
researcher can support or refute it through scientific research
methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of
data). Hypothesis is tested by using suitable statistical tests.
e. Research Design
It is defined as the blueprint of the research for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data that researcher chooses in a coherent
and logical way in order to ensure that researcher will effectively address
the research problem. The main function of a research design is to explain how
researcher will find answers to research questions. The research design sets out
the logic of researcher's inquiry. Research design must be valid, workable and
manageable. It describes the general framework for collection and analysis of
identified data. It is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted.
It consists the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of the data.
It includes an outline of what the research will do from writing the hypothesis
and its operational implications to the final analysis of the data.
f. Data Collection:
Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant
sources to find answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and
evaluate the outcomes. Data can be collected as either quantitative or
qualitative. It is also known as field work. Data collection is the primary task of
the field work. It is actually an initiation of the works. Data can be usually
collected by following methods:
a. Primary Method of Data Collection (Survey, Questionnaire, Observation,
Interview, Focus Group Discussion)
b. Secondary method of data collection (Published and Unpublished Sources)
However, the procedures used to obtain the data vary depending on the research
design chosen and the source of data.
g. Data Analysis:
Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical
techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data
After collection of the data, it has to be tabulated, edited, and analyzed using
various statistical tools. Data can be analyzed in several ways but should use most
appropriate tool to assess the reliability of data. The unwieldy data should
necessarily be condensed into a manageable groups and tables for further
analysis. Thus, the researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful
and usable categories.
Data can be analysed in the following ways:
1. Quantitative Analysis: Quantitative analysis uses numbers and
statistics to understand frequencies, averages
and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect
relationships (in experiments). It is usually of two types:
Descriptive Statistics:  In this analysis the data is presented in a meaningful
way. Eg: Frequency table, mode, median.
Inferential Statistics: In this analysis, the hypothesis is tested and
generalization is done.
2. Qualitative Data Analysis: Qualitative analysis is used to
understand words, ideas, and experiences. Eg: Thematic
Analysis, Content Analysis, Textual Analysis
h. Interpretation and Generalization:
The final step of scientific research process involves interpretation and
generalization of the findings about the phenomena. After getting the findings,
they must be interpreted to meet the objectives and to generalize the results.
Through research, existing theories or practices are refined and modified.
Research is a never ending process. Findings of the previous research may be the
starting of the next research. Process of expanding the stock of knowledge is
continuing process.