Drilling Fluids

A drilling fluid is any fluid which is circulated through a well in order to

remove cuttings from a wellbore. This section will discuss fluids which have
water or oil as their continuous phase. Air, mist and foam, which can be used
as drilling fluids, will not be discussed at this time.
A drilling fluid must fulfill many functions in order for a well to be drilled
successfully, safely, and economically. The most important functions are:
1. Remove drilled cuttings from under the bit
2. Carry those cuttings out of the hole
3. Suspend cuttings in the fluid when circulation is stopped
4. Release cuttings when processed by surface equipment
5. Allow cuttings to settle out at the surface
6. Provide enough hydrostatic pressure to balance formation pore pressures
7. Prevent the bore hole from collapsing or caving in
8. Protect producing formations from damage which could impair production
9. Clean, cool, and lubricate the drill bit.
Occasionally, these functions require the drilling fluid to act in conflicting
ways. It can be seen that items #1-3 are best served if the drilling fluid has a
high viscosity, whereas items #4-5 are best accomplished with a low
viscosity. Items #6 & 8 are often mutually exclusive because drilled solids
will tend to pack into the pore spaces of a producing formation.

Make-up of a Drilling Fluid

In its most basic form a drilling fluid is composed of a liquid (either water or
oil) and some sort of viscosity agent. If nothing else is added, whenever the
hydrostatic pressure is greater than the formation pore pressure (and the
formation is porous and permeable) a portion of the fluid will be flushed into
the formation. Since excessive filtrate can cause borehole problems, some
sort of filtration control additive is generally added. In order to provide
enough hydrostatic pressure to balance abnormal pore pressures, the density
of the drilling fluid is increased by adding a weight material (generally
barite).
In summary, a drilling fluid consists of:
The Base Liquid
• Water - fresh or saline
• Oil - diesel or crude
• Mineral Oil or other synthetic fluids
Dispersed Solids
• Colloidal particles, which are suspended particles of various sizes
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Dissolved Solids
• Usually salts and their effects on colloids most are important, all drilling
fluids have essentially the same properties, and only the magnitude varies.
These properties include density, viscosity, gel strength, filter cake, water
loss, and electrical resistance.
Normal Drilling Fluids
Though this type of drilling fluid is easy to describe, it is hard to define and
even more difficult to find. In the field, a normal fluid generally means there
is little effort expended to control the range of properties. As such, it is
simple to make and control. General rules include:
1. It is used where no unexpected conditions occur
2. The mud will stabilize, so its properties are in the range required to control
holes conditions
3. The chief problem is viscosity control
Formations usually drilled with this type of mud are shale and sands. Since
viscosity is the major problem, the amount and condition of the colloidal clay
is important. To do this, two general types of treatment are used:
1. Water soluble polyphosphates
(a) They reduce viscosity
(b) Can be used alone or with tannins
(c) If filter cake and filtration control is required- add colloidal clay to
system
2. Caustic Soda and Tannins
(a) They also reduce viscosity
(b) Used under more severe conditions than phosphate treatment

The upper portions of most wells can use “normal” muds

1. Care must be taken not to add chemicals which may hinder the making of
special muds later on.
2. Native clays used to make the mud are usually adequate
Special Drilling Fluids
These drilling fluids are made to combat particular abnormal hole conditions
or to accomplish specific objectives. These are:
1. Special Objectives
(a) Faster penetration rates
(b) Greater protection to producing zones
2. Abnormal Holes Conditions
(a) Long salt sections
(b) High formation pressures
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Drilling Fluid Classification Systems
 Non-Dispersed System
This mud system consists of spud muds, “natural” muds, and other lightly
treated systems. Generally used in the shallower portions of a well.
 Dispersed Mud Systems
These mud systems are “dispersed” with de-flocculants and filtrate reducers.
Normally used on deeper wells or where problems with viscosity occur. The
main dispersed mud is a “lignosulfate” system, though other products are
used. Lignite and other chemicals are added to maintain specific mud
properties.
 Calcium-Treated Mud Systems
This mud system uses calcium and magnesium to inhibit the hydration of
formation clays/shale. Hydrated lime (CaO), gypsum (CaSo4)and calcium
chloride(CaCl2) are the main components of this type of system.
 Polymer Mud Systems
Polymers are long-chained, high molecular-weight compounds, which are
used to increase the viscosity, flocculate clays, reduce filtrate and stabilize
the borehole. Bio-polymers and cross-linked polymers, which have good
shear-thinning properties, are also used.
 Low Solids Mud System
This type of mud system controls the solids content and type. Total solids
should not be higher than 6% to 10%. Clay content should not be greater than
3%. Drilled solids to bentonite ratio should be less than 2:1.
 Saturated Salt Mud Systems
A saturated salt system will have a chloride content of 189,000 ppm. In
saltwater systems, the chloride content can range from 6,000 to 189,000 ppm.
Those at the lower end are normally called “seawater” systems.
These muds can be prepared with fresh or salt water, then sodium chloride or
other salts (potassium, etc.) are added. Attapulgite clay, CMC
(Carboxymethyl Cellulose) or starch (C6H10O5)is added to maintain
viscosity.
 Oil-Based Mud Systems
There are two types of systems: 1) invert emulsion, where water is the
dispersed phase and oil the continuous phase (water-in-oil mud), and 2)
emulsion muds, where oil is the dispersed phase and water is the continuous
phase (oil-in-water mud). Emulsifiers are added to control the rheological
properties (water increases viscosity, oil decreases viscosity).

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 Air, Mist, Foam-Based Mud Systems
These “lower than hydrostatic pressure” systems are of four types: 1) dry air
or gas is injected into the borehole to remove cuttings and can be used until
appreciable amounts of water are encountered, 2) mist drilling is then used,
which involves injecting a foaming agent into the air stream, 3) foam drilling
is used when large amounts of water is encountered, which uses chemical
detergents and polymers to form the foam, and 4) aerated fluids is a mud
system injected with air to reduce the hydrostatic pressure.

 Work over Mud Systems

Also called completion fluids, these are specialized systems designed to 1)
minimize formation damage, 2) be compatible with acidizing and fracturing
fluids, and 3) reduce clay/shale hydration. They are usually highly treated
brines and blended salt fluids.

Drilling Fluid Additives

Many substances, both reactive and inert, are added to drilling fluids to
perform specialized functions. The most common functions are:
 Alkalinity and pH Control
Designed to control the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the drilling
fluid. Most common are lime, caustic soda and bicarbonate of soda.
 Bactericides
Used to reduce the bacteria count. Paraformaldehyde, caustic soda,
lime and starch preservatives are the most common.
 Calcium Reducers
These are used to prevent, reduce and overcome the contamination
effects of calcium sulfates (anhydrite and gypsum). The most common
are caustic soda, soda ash, bicarbonate of soda and certain
polyphosphates.
 Corrosion Inhibitors
Used to control the effects of oxygen and hydrogen sulfide corrosion.
 Hydrated lime and amine salts are often added to check this type of
corrosion. Oil-based muds have excellent corrosion inhibition
properties.
 Defoamers
These are used to reduce the foaming action in salt and saturated
saltwater mud systems, by reducing the surface tension.

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  Emulsifiers
Added to a mud system to create a homogeneous mixture of two
liquids (oil and water). The most common are modified
lignosulfonates, fatty acids and amine derivatives.

 Filtrate Reducers
These are used to reduce the amount of water lost to the formations.
The most common are bentonite clays, CMC (sodium carboxyl methyl
cellulose) and pre-gelatinized starch.
 Flocculants
These are used to cause the colloidal particles in suspension to form
into bunches, causing solids to settle out. The most common are salt,
hydrated lime, gypsum and sodium tetra phosphates.
 Foaming Agents
Most commonly used in air drilling operations. They act as surfactants,
to foam in the presence of water.
 Lost Circulation Materials
These inert solids are used to plug large openings in the formations, to
prevent the loss of whole drilling fluid. Nut plug (nut shells), and mica
flakes are commonly used.
 Lubricants
These are used to reduce torque at the bit by reducing the coefficient of
friction. Certain oils and soaps are commonly used.
 Pipe-Freeing Agents
Used as spotting fluids in areas of stuck pipe to reduce friction,
increase lubricity and inhibit formation hydration. Commonly used are
oils, detergents, surfactants and soaps.
 Shale-Control Inhibitors
These are used to control the hydration, caving and disintegration of
clay/shale formations. Commonly used are gypsum, sodium silicate
and calcium lingosulfnates.
 Surfactants
These are used to reduce the interfacial tension between contacting
surfaces (oil/water, water/solids, water/air, etc.).
 Weighting Agents
Used to provide a weighted fluid higher than the fluids specific gravity.
Materials are barite (BaSo4), hematite, calcium carbonate and galena.

Oil-Based Drilling Fluids

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These fluids, because of their special nature of being a mixture of two
immiscible liquids (oil and water), require special treatments and testing
procedures.
Dispersed Phase: The liquid present in the form of finely divided droplets.
Continuous Phase: The liquid present in the form of the matrix in which the
droplets are suspended.
To keep these liquids stabilized (i.e. to keep the dispersed phase from
coalescing and settling out of the mixture), an emulsifier is added to form an
interfacial film around the dispersed phase which causes them to repel each
other, so they remain dispersed.
The effectiveness of an emulsifier depends on the alkalinity and electrolytes
(chloride content) of the water phase, and the temperature of the drilling
fluid.

Electrical Stability
The electrical stability (E.S.) of an oil-based drilling fluid is the stability of
the emulsions of water in oil, or the amount of current required to break the
emulsifier down and allow the saline water to coalesce.
1. An electrical probe is inserted into the drilling fluid and the voltage
increased until the emulsion breaks down
a. the measure of emulsion breakdown is indicated by current flow
b. relative stability is recorded as the amount of voltage at the breakdown
point.
2. E.S. is recorded as the voltage reading and temperature of the drilling fluid
sample.
a. adding emulsifier will raise the E.S. readings
b. normal “fresh” mud is about 300 or higher
c. during drilling, the E.S. can increase to 800 or higher
Aniline Point
Another common term used when dealing with oil-based drilling fluids is the
aniline point of that fluid. The aniline point is the temperature below which
an oil containing 50% by volume aniline (C6H5-NH2) becomes cloudy. The
solvent powers for rubber are related to the solvent power for aniline. Oils
having an aniline point above 140oF are considered acceptable to use.

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