a a SS ee CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION 6.1 LIMITS 6 2 PROPERTIES OF LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 6 3 AVERACE RATE OF CHAN 6 4 THE DERIVATIVE. 6S DIFFERENTIATION 6 ‘6 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 6 7 INSTANTANEOUS-RATE-OF-CHANGE INTERPRETATION 6 8 HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVES IMPORTANT FORMUL. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES CHAPTER TEST APPENDIX: PROOFS OF SELECTED RULES OF DIFFERENTIATIONIntroduce the concepts of limits and continuity Provide an understanding of average rate of change Q Provide an understanding of the derivative, including ts computation and interpretation Present selected rules of differentiation and illustrate their use Introduce the nature of higher-order derivatives and their interpretation,Stand Somat eure Ce A flu epidemic is spreading through @ lage midwes‘ern state. Based upon similar epidemics which have occurred ir: tbe past, epidemiologisis have formulnied a mathematica! function which ectiunetes the number of por ns who will he afflicted hy the fu, Using hie rceinating function health dipartment affeals wart to predict the «ffects af the epidamic, incheding estimating the rate-of affliction and tee ~enbe" >) 5 -rsune libaly 19 be af tod vith the flu (Krampte 56) ‘This is the first of six chapters wl examine the calculus and its application to business, economics, and other areas of problem solving. Two major areas of study within the calculus are differential caloutua and integral calculus. Dif ferential calculus focuses on rates of change in analyzing a situation. Graphically, sntial calculus solves the following problem: Given a function whose graph is a smooth curve and given a paint in the domain of the funetion, what is the slope of the line tangent to the curve at this point? You will gee later that the “slope” expresses the instantaneous -rate of change of the function. Integral calculus inyolves summation of a special type. Graphically, the con- cepts of area in two dimensions or volume in three dimensions are important in integral calculus. In two dimensions, integral calculus solves the following prob- lem: Givenia function whose graph is a smooth curve and two points in the domain of the function, what is the area of the region bounded hy the curve and the x aris between these tio points? This chapter, the following two, and Chap. 20 will discuss differential calculus and its applications. Chapter 18 will introduce integral calculus and Chap. 19 will discuss applications of integral calculus. The goal in these chapters is to provide an appreciation for what the calculus is and where it can be applied. Though it would take several semesters of intensive study to understand most of the finer pointe of the calculus, your coverage will enable you to understand the tools for conducting analyses at elementary levels. ‘This chapter is concerned with laying foundations for the remaining chapters First, two concepts which ate important in the theory of differential calculus — limits and continuity—will be presented. Thia discussion will he followed by an intuitive development of the concept of the derivative. The remainder of the chap- ter will provide the tools for finding derivatives as well as insights into interpreting the meaning of the derivative, Although proofs of the rules of differentiation are not presented in the main part of the chapter, selected proofs are presented in the appendix at the end of the chapter. LIMITS. ‘Two concepts which are important in the theory of differential and integral caleu lus are the limit of @ funtion and continuity. The concept of the limit is introduced in this section, The next section expands upon this topic and introducesRene UMITS 265 the concept of continuity. Since these concepts are frequently misunderstood, take care in reading these discussions. Limits of Functions In the calculus there is often an interest in the limiting value of a function as the independent variable apj-roaches some specific real number, This limiting value, when it exists, is called a limit, The notation hum fx) = Lb (6.1) is used to express the limiting value of a function. Equation ( 6.1) ia read “the limit of f(x), aa x approaches the value a, equals L." When investigating a limit, one is asking whether f(x) approaches a specific value L ax the value of x gets closer and closer to a ‘There are different procedures for determining the limit of a function. The temptation is simply to substitute the value x= a into f and determine f(a). This actually is a valid way of determining the limit for many but not all functions One approach that can be used is to aubstitute values of the independent variable into the function while observing the behavior of f(x) aa the value of x comes closer and closer toa. An important point in this procedure is that the value of the function is observed as the vaiue of a ia approached from both sides of a. The notation lim f(x) representa the limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the left (left-hand limit) or from below. The notation lim f(x) represents the limit of {{x) ae x approaches a from the right (right-hand limit) or from above. If the value of the function approaches the same number L as x opproaches a from either direction, then the limit equals L. To state it more precisely: TEST FOU EXISTENCE OF A LIMIT HO tim Ad = Land tim fd = L, then tn flab= Le me Ifthe limiting values of /(x) are different when x approaches a from each direction, then the function does not approach a limit ax x approaches a. The following examples are illustrative ns" (if corresponding values for /(3), Table 16.1 indicatos these values. Note that the value of x = 2 hhaa been approached from both the left and the right. From either direction, f(x) is ap: proaching the name value, 8. Since In order to determine existe), let's construct a table of assumed values for x and lim P= and tim x?=8 then lim t=CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION Approaching s= 2 from the Left r 1 16 fee CL 4.376 6 7416 Approaching s=2fromtheRight 3 25 2.06 201 2.005 2.001 15.625 = «9.281 BIS B12] 8.060 O12 Note that this limit could have been determined by simply substituting x = 2 into f. Figure 6 .1 confirms our reoult. The closer geta to the value 2, the closer the value of fl) comes to 8 Figure 6.1 jim a= lim x= 8 piven the function ‘B when x4 +3° whenz>4flayed ASS, Ce = til Approaching #= 4 from the Right z [5 45 45 an 4.01 f(a) = 2x43 13.0 120 16 2 na 11.02 let's deter ino whether lim /(x) exists. A toble ia conatructed with values for /(x) deter- mined as x approaches the value of 4 from buch the left and right (Table 15.2). As x approaches the value of 4 froma the leMt, /(z} approaches a value of 8, oF lima f(z) = 8 ‘As x approachea 4 fron the right, /(x) approwchos « value of 11, oF lian f(x) = 1 Since xy fx) # hin, f\3) the function does not approach a limiting value us x 4, and lim f(z) does not exiat. Figure 6.2 shows the graph of this function. Recall from Chap. 4 that the solid circle (@) indicates that 4 is included in the domain for the lower line sogment, and the open cirele (0) re G2 him Ax) + sim, As)268 Lat's determine whether lim f(x) exiate if CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION indicates that x =4 is not included in the domain for Lhe upper line segment. The jump in values of the function at x= 4 is the reason that the limit does not exiat, An important point regarding this function is that litnita do exiat for f(z) for values of x other than 4 z'-9 nt Since the denominator equals 0 when x = 8, we can conclude that the function is undefined at this point. And it would be tempting to conclude that no limit exista when x = 4 However thie function does approach « limit as x approaches (geta closer to) 3, even though the function is not defined at x= 3 Recoil § 15 trfen 16 Left 2 25 f= 50 55 885.85 8.98 ‘Approaching «= from the Right x U4 35 81308 Table 6 .3 contains values of /(x) as x approaches 3 from both the left and the right Since im fiz) 6 and lim f(x) = 6 then Even though the function is undefined when x = 3, the function approaches a value of 6 a8 the value of x compen closer to 3. Figure 15.3 preserits the graph of the function ‘One special case is that of limite at an endpoint on the domain of # function. Consider the function /(z) = Vz. The domain for this function is x = 0. If we are interested in lim Vz, we cannot determine both the left-hand and the right-hand limits. We can determine fin, ‘but not Siem vx. Our concern always will be in determining limits from within the domain of a function. In this instance, the limit must be determined based on the right-hand limit only. Since lim Vx = 0, then lim Vz— 0. Figure 6 4 illustrates thia function. QFigure 6 4 A key point with the limit concept is that we are not intereated in the value of f(x when x = a. Weare interested in the behavior of /() as x comes closer and closer to a vatue of a. And the notation n f(x) =L | means that as x gets close to a, but x # a, f(x) gets close to L. Section 6-1 Follow-up Exercises 1 Use the graph of the function in Fig, 15.5 to determine the indicated limits, (a) lim f(x) (6) lim, fla) (c) in f(z) (dé) Sia f(s) (e) tim 70 (/) tian £02)270 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION 2 Use the graph of the function in Fig. 6 . to dotermise the indicated limit, (4) Mig Aa (8) Mies (44) (e) ira #2) (4) lima f(x) (+) Ma #02) (P) tim fle) (a) ima f(x) (h) ti £02) 3 Une the graph of the function in Fig 6 .7 to determine the indicated limits. (a) tina f(2) b) lim fs) (6) lisa fle (4) lim ft) (e) him f(x) (/) tien £2) 4. Use the graph ot the function in Fig, 6 8 to determine tho indicated limita, (a) fs) (6) lim fa) () iw #04) (2) tim_ftx) re) (1) Mio flay fa) Forthe following exercises, determine the limit (ifit exista) by constructing a table of values for f(x) and examining left- and right-hand limita (whare appropriate. 5 lim 2x? ® fim (Sz + 15) 7 tim fs) were fai = {359g TESS 2x forr<6 8 lim f(x) whore f(x) = R tabFigure 6.6 Figere 6 Figure 6.8272 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION forr<-1 forr=—1 { for 2<0 xt fors20 10 lim A(x) where h(x) = 12 tim (42? — 52+ 1) 4 19 lin > a ea = 49 # 23 lim ~ > 24 fio —* a?+32-10 25 lim, 7% tig 2292 at ata 6.2 PROPERTIES OF LIMITS AND CONTINUITY Some Properties of Limits This section discusses some properties of limits which are useful in determining the limiting value of a function. We will s00n see that the process of determining limits n of f(x) at & series of points on either side uf need not always involve evaluat x=a Property 1 It Ld = c, whise ois veal, lee Property 2 Wi /\x) =, where 1 is a pusitive wteger, then Ti x = utPROPERTIES OF LIMITS AND CONTINUITY Property 3 ICf(x) has a limit axe —+a and c is veal, then fie c Fa) =~ When FU) Property 4 If Hey /(r) and lim g(x) exist, then Firm (Fz) gix)] = Item fx) + tim glx) im (x*= 10) = lim xt lim 10 Property 5 If Jim /Le) and lim g(x) exist, then Him {FGe) - gGx)] = lim Fx) © Tim gtr im [(z* — 6){x + 19] fim (34 ~ 5) - im (+2) = (4) 514+ 1 16 — 515) 11(5) = 5 Property 6 if itr f(x) and lim g(x) exist, then provided lim g(x) #0 om274 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION “2510” Tim @ +10 Q ‘As you will see in the following examples, evaluating a limit frequently requires the use of more than one of these properties, erat | lim x= (—1)¢=1 (Property 2) (Property 4) (Properties 1 and 2) nee) =30 lim 5x4 = 6+ lim x (Property 3) = (5-2)* (Property 2) = (5)(~8) = ~40 Denes TT Mon Ue! — 10608 4] = i (x4 — 1) im (4+ 4) (Property 5) = Alig x*— lim 1)(lim x* + lim 4) (Property 4) =(0— 10+ 4) (Propertios 1 and 2) =n) ==4 Pewee (Property 6) (Property 4) (Properties 1 and'2) Q ‘The properties make the process of evaluating limits considerably easier for certain classes of functions. Limits of these types of functions may be evaluated by substitation to determine /(a). For these classes of functions (6,2) Polynomial functions are a commonly used class of functions for which Eq. (6.2) is valid. This conclusion follows from Properties 1 through 4.PROPERTIES OF LIMITS AND CONTINUITY lim (3x*—4x+10) = /(-2) 2) — 4(-2) +10 12+68+10— 30 In Example 3 we deter Even though the function is not defined at x = 3, the value of the function ap. proaches 6 as x approaches 3, This function is an example of a family of “quotient” functions which can be simplified by factoring, Hx) = i) _(x+8)(z—3) x—9 =x+3 © forallx#3 Even though /(x) = [(x + 3)(x —8)\/(x — 3) and g(x) =x +3 are not the eame function, they are the same everywhere ((x) ia defined. Av illustrated’in Fig. 6 9, 8 and f graph aa identical lines except for the “hole” at x= 3 on the graph of /. However, since we are not interested in what happens to f at x= 3, we can deter- 1@ the behavior of f by studying the behavior of g. Seeeeteeeetttee te ig teeCHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION Using g as an equivalent function tof, the substitution approach to determi ing the limit is valid, That 9 7 = lim (x+3) 34956 . jig “ELBE HD Seti Nee 1 +l = lim (4x —3) =4(-1)- Limits and Infinity Frequently there is an interest iu the Lehevior uf e function aw Ube independent variable becomes large without limit “approaching” either poritive or negativ infinity), Examine the two functions eketched in Fig. 6 .10. In Fig. 6 .10a, as approaches negative infinity, f(x) approaches but never quite reaches a value of 4 Using limit notation, we state lim f(x) 4 ‘We can also state that f(x) has a horizontal asymptote of y = 4 asx approached —«, Again, this suggests that /(x) approaches but never quite reaches a value of 4 a x approaches —=. ure 6 10 Limits at infinity. nymorotePROPERTIES OF LIMITS AND CONTINUITY a7 Similarly, in Fig. 6108, ¢ approaches but never quite reaches the x axis as x approaches ®, We can state this behavior by the notation lim gtx) = 0 As with /, g bas a horizontal asymptote of y = 0 as x approaches =. A more formal definition for a horizontal saymptote follows DEFINITION: HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE The line y= ais a horizontal asymptote wi the graph of Fit yndonly il lim fast = a Let's examine the evaluation of limits as the independent variable approaches positive or negative infinity. Consider lim (1/2) ‘Table 6 4 illustrates the substitution of sample values for x, We can see from this table that lim (1/z) = 0. x 110 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 {@)=1x | 1 01 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 Consider the evaluation of lim (1/x*). Table 6 .5 summarizes values of the function for different values of x. Again, we see that lim (1/x*) = 0. Compared with lim (1/z), the squaring of x in the denominator results in the limit being ap: proached at a faster rate. 1 100 1,000 0.01 0.0001 0.000001 -——_0,00000001 Ve fe ‘Consider the evaluation of lim (32? + 6x)/(4x4 ~ 5). One technique for evdlaating this limit 4s to factor the monomial term of the highest degree from both the numerator and the denomi: nator. Factoring 3x? in the numerator and 4z* in the denominator remulta inCHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION 0) a0) Q Although it may not ba clear from the examples presented thus far, the limit of a rational function as x approaches positive or negative infinity is simply the limit of the quotient of the monomial term of highest degree in the numerator and the} monomial term of highest degree in the denominator. This is because the highest- degree terme in both the numerator and denominator dominate all other terma nn x approaches positive or negative infinity, In Example 18, we can evaluate the limit by evaluating the behavior of 9x?/4x* aa x—+ ©, In Example 19, the limit can be found by evaluating the limit of 5x*/3z* na x —+ ~=, Let's illustrate this concept specifically by evaluating pape i wow 25+ Bx" Te4 Since 4x*and—7z*are the monomial terms of highost degree in the numerator and denominator, respectively, the limit can be evaluated by determining Another limit possibility is illustrated in Fig. 6 .11. In this figure f(x) becomes arbitrarily large as x approaches a. For this situation we state that fhas « vertical asymptote of x = a because as x approaches the value a, f(x) gets large withoutFigure 6.11 Vertical asymptote. limit. Visually, the ordinat 5 ng ‘becomes large without limit as the curve gets closer to a Ii a, never quite touching it, A more formal definition of this phenomenon follows. DEFINITION; VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE The line «= ais 9 vertical asymplote of the graph of f if and ooly if ‘To evaluate lim (1/s), wo mut take ef and right and limita an x approaches 0, Table 16 presents eelected values. We should conclude that lim (1/x") =, Graphically, f ap- oars an in Fig. 6.12. Note that /(x) = 1/7 haa a vertical aaymptote of x = Oand horizontal aaymptotes.of » = 0. Approaching x= 0 from the Left e = 05 1 an 0.001 100 10,000 1,000,000 Approaching += 0 from the Right 0.01 0.001 19,000 1,000,000CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION Varica anymerot Figure 6.12 Horizontal asymptote at y= 0 fun fixie me or lim flys = acknowledges that a/imit does not erist that is. there sno! 2 real-number mits value for Ax Continuity In an informal sense, a function is described as continuous if it can be sketched withqut lifting your pen or pencil from the paper (j.e., it has no gaps, no jumps, and no breaks). Most of the functions that we will examine in the calculus will be continuous functions, Figure- 6.13 indicates the aketches of four different func- tions. Those depicted in Fig. 6 13a and .6.13b are continuous since they can be drawn without lifting your pencil. Those in Fig. 6 .19cand 6.13d are not continu- ‘ous because of the “breaks” in the functions, A function which is not continuous is termed discontinuous, A more formal definition of the property of continuity follows.2 OF LIMITS: AND: CONTINUITY 281 Figure 6.18 fe Assessing | sity I, / | 4 | ‘ \ (e) Discontinuous () Discontinuous DEFINITION: CONTINUITY AT A POINT A function fis ty untinudus at 2 at Lo the functiie = defied ata= a, and 2 lim fin= tia (6,3) In Example | wo determined that for f(x) = x* Lim x* Because /(x) = x? is defined at x 2 and lim * = f(2) = 8, we can state that the function (2) =? in continuous at x= 2 PRRRRREEE [n Example 3 we determined that Because x ~ 3 in not in the domsin of the the function (x#— 9)/(x— 3) in inction, f(3) in not defined and we can state that pus at x= 3, QCHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION DEFINITION: CONTINUITY OVER AN INTERVAL ‘A function fis contimuous over an interval {a, 6] if itis continuous at every point within the interval The function f(x) = x? — 2x + 5 is continuous for any real x becaiine 1 firdefined for any ree 2 ‘The rational function i not defined when Since the loft side of the equation equals 0 when x= 0, x=—1, or x= +1, the function ia discontinuous at these thres values. Figure 15.14 presenta sketch of the function, Note that this function has vertical asymptoten described by the equations x~ 1, x= —1, and x= 0 Discontinuities at x= 0,1, 1PROPERTIES OF LIMITS AND CONTINUITY Section 6.2 Follow-up Exercises For the following exercises, find the indicated limit. 1 lim (3x? = 6 +9) 2 lim (2x* — 102) im (**~r3") 4 lim 2* mAs Shave 5 lim = 6 lim 250 7 fim 175 8 lim >*% O lim (Se + 234 +2) 10 lim, (—<4 + 8x3) 11 lim (-2*+ 52" + 10) 12 lim (62° + 102%) 5 tim (42 1o+3 13 in (GE 4 9 (tara) phicseiphea x+3 1 lim, (++ 22)(52~10) 16 fim | (==) (x*— 12) t+ Br~ 14 17 iv —' For the following exercises, find the indicated limi any nayrmptotes. the following exercises, determine whether there are any discontinuities and, if 50, where they occur 44054 =. 39 fiz) —ar +2 34 fe)" 5 38 [x)= 96 (x)= 283CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION 38 flx 39 fix) = se 40 f(x) sles 42 (2) = 8 fla) = 44 fu Es i 48 fix) 46 fix)=* 47 a) = i 48 fix) = AVERAGE RATE OF CHANCE Average Rate of Change and Slope ed in Chap. 2, the slope of « straight line can be determined the two-point formula TWO-POINT FORMULA Ay wm AY g> hh (64) m Figure 6.16 illustrates the graph of a linear function. With linear functions the slope is constant over the domain of the function, The slope provides an exact measure of the rate of “hange in the value of y with respect toa change in the value Fiqure 6,15. Linear function with constant slopef x. Ifthe function in F ‘esents 4 linear coat function and x equals number of unita produced, t ticates the rate at which total cost increas with respe in the f output With nonlinear functions the f in the value of y with respect te n x ig not constant. However, one way of partially describing nonlin functions er some interval 7 Aasume that a person takew 1 stomobile t n MERE te ciated nev tctin of ime 1 bythe nonin d=/it +8 where of is measured in miles, ¢ is measured in hours, and 0 = ¢= 5, During this 6-ho journey the apeed of the car m 1 continuously (e-g., because of tratfic lights, eee mops et After 1 bout, the total distance travele CO aN pin Neate aa WY 4 = 18m \ ( dy s \\ \ @) )) epi} The average rate of change in the distance traveled with reapect to a change in time during a time intervel (better known es average velocity) i vomputed ax Dintanice traveled Time traveled he firnt he F of this trip, the averuge velocity equals Ad _ f1)—/(0)_ 16-0 ! 3 16 mphCHAPTER 6, DIFFERENTIATION ‘The distance traveled at the end of 2 hours is 12) = 82? +842) ~ 32+ 16 48 miles ‘The distance traveled during the second hour ia Ad = f(2)—/() = 48 — 16 = 32 miles ‘The average velocity for the second hour equals Ad | 32 Be = = 2 32 mph ap 7 Sm ‘The average velocity for the second hour is different compared with that for the firet hour. ‘The average velocity during the firet 2 hours is the total distance traveled during that period divided by the time traveled, or bd. (2) —/(0) _ 48-0 at 2-0 2 sae PRACTICE EXERCISE What is the average velocity for the entire 5-hour trip? Answer 48 mph Consider two pointe A and B in Fig. 16.16. The straight line connecting thess two points on fis referred to as a secant line. At point A the independent variable Figure 6 16 fe Secant line AB. Li sma ion TefalAVERAGE RATE OF CHAN( has a value of x, and the corresponding value of the dependent variable can be determined by evaluating /(x). At point B the independent variable has c value to x + Ax, and the corresponding value of the dependent variable determined by evaloating /(= + 4x). In moving from point A to point B, the change in the value of x is (x + Ax) ~ x, or Ax. The associated change in the valus of y ia Ay = f(x + Ax) — f(x), The ratio of these changes is ; cea |= : a fix (6.5) Equation (6.5) is sometimes referred to as the difference quotient. DEFINITION: THE DIFFERENCE QUOTIENT Gluen any two points on a function (having coordinates |x, Fx) and [e+ Bx), flee + Ax), the difference quotient provides @ general expression which renresents 1 theaverage rate of change in the rulne of y with respect a the change in while moving from |x. fel {0 \le-> Mx) Me AM: UW the slope of the secant line ¢unnecting the tea points, (e) Find the goneral sxpreion or the diference quotient ofthe function y = f(s) = x ROVE re ee reo the Jit eonweting (= 2-4) sail 9) we toe sre vale eee {the expression for the difference quotient found in part a: (c) Pind the elope in part b usi SOLUTION (a) Given two points on the function f(x) = x* whieh bave coordinates (x, /(2)) and (x + Ax [(z+ Ax), we have Ay _ flx-+ax)— fix) _ (r+ Aayt— st _ 2x(dz) +40" ax numerator and canceling with A: in the denomina Factoring Ax from ench term in tor, we Ret Ay fle+Ax)—fiz)_ te (2e+ Ax) Ar” Ar ieCHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION When finding the difference quotient, the evaluation of f(x-+ Ax) and f(x} for a specific function catises the greatest difficulty for students. if, for this function, you were asked to find 13), you would substitute the value of 3 into the function wherever the independent variable appears, or /(3) = 3? = 9. When asked to find f(x + Ax) in this example, we substituted + 4.x into the fubetion where the independent variable appeared and evaluated (x + Ax Similarly, when finding fiat, we substituted the value a where the independent vanable appeared and evaluated x? Whenever you are asked (0 determine the difference quotient, V(x) will always be the specific function with which you are working, (0) Using the two-point slope formula, we get Ay _ (3) -/(-2) Az” 3=CD) a? Figure 617 fist Asy= ke + Asi! <9 By = fle + Se) ~ fly <3 a5 [ish = ‘The slope of the secant line connecting (~2, 4) and (3, 9) on f equals 1 (¢) As ahown in Fig, 6 -17, let (x, f(z)) and (x + Ax, f(z + Az)) correspond to the pointsAVERAGE RATE OF CHANGE 289 and 80 2 and xt+Ar=3 Therefore 2) + Axe 3 or Ar ‘This value for Ax (the change in x) simply ameana that in moving /rom (—2, 4) to (3, 9), the value of > has increased by 5 unite. Ifwe substitute the values of x = —2 and Ax = 6 into Ea, 6.8), the reault in exactly the same as we got in part 0. PRACTICE EXERCISE As in finding the slope of a line connecting two points, the difference quotient [Eq. (15.8)] for two specific points on a function is unaffected by which point is labeled (x, Axi] and which [(x+ Ax), Ax-+ Ax). In the last example, let ree Qand (4+ As) —2 Foaluate the differ | arrive atthe same result as inthe example \ce quotient and see if you Section 6.3 Follow-up Exercises For each of the following functions, determine the nv: moving from x——1 to x—2 © rate of change in the value of y Lym f(x) = 3x" 2 y= f(x) = 6x? BS yms(z)=xt- 248 Aye fala 2" 228+ +2 B ym fix) = 24x +4) 6 ym fiz)—x¥ 7 y= fla) = 2s? +6243 B y= f(x) = 2x4 — Re +10 O ym f(x) = 42? —2e 10 y= f(x) — 29+ Oe +4 11 y= f(x) =—5x* 12 ye f(x) ax +4x—5 13 y= f(z) = 24 14 yef(s)=2*—10 15 A ball ia thrown straight up into the air. ‘The height of the ball can be described as a function of time according to the function it) = —160? + 128¢ whore A(t) io height measured in feet and t is time measured in seconda,CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION (@) Determine the average rate of change in height between ¢ = 0 and t= 2. Between t= Ound (= 4. Between #=U and t= 8 (0) How long does it take for the ball to hit the ground (h = 0)? 16 An object is dropped from a bridge which is 576 feet high. The height of the object can bbe determined as & Function of time (since being dropped) according to the functios Alt) = 576 — 16% whore hit) in bright measured in feet and ¢ ia time meanured in seconda. (a) Determine the average rate of change in height between ¢ = 0 t= Onndt=2. Between t= 0 and t= 4. (8) How Jong does it take for the ball to hit the water (A= 0)? 17 Table 6 .7 indicates annual gales (in dollars) for a company during a selected period. A\ what average rate did annual sales increase between 1988 and 1990? Between 1988 and 19897 Between 1989 and 19007 Retween 1989 and 19917 Year 1988 1989 19901991 ‘Annual saiee (millions) $1008 $1054 $109.8 «8116.5 ————— 18 Baseball Attendance Annual attendance at professional baseball games bas beer increasing in recent years, Figures for the years 1987 to 1991 are shown in Table ,6.5 Determine the average rate of change in annual attendance between 1987 and 199 1987 and 1990, and 1989 and 1991. Year 1988 198919901991 Annwal attendance (willions) 678AVERAGE RATE OF CHAN 291 Population Growth Hispanics are the fastest-growing ining United States, If current trends continue, it ia entimated that Hispanica wil pase blacks as the Largest minority group somewhere around the year 2005. Table 15.9 ahows estimates of the U.S. Hi ec population (in millions) in rece and Determine the average rate of change in the Hispanic population 180, 1988 and 1990, and 1987 and 1996 Population 19.2 199 20 Pay-Per-View TV Pay-per (PPV) han been a growing option among ‘TV viewers, With PPV, cable TV subscribers buy only the cable shows they wish to wetch, Special events, such as championship boxing matches or live concerts, axe warizes total revenues for the industry f of change in PPV revenues between 1987 prime PPY offerings, Figure 6 18 recent yoars. Determine Lhe average 1989, anid between 1947 and 1990. & , | Figure 6 18 Pay-per-view revenues, $ millions 21 A person tal sto ip. The distance traveled d (in miles) is described as « function of time € (in hours) d= fit) =6t?+12t whereOst<4 (a) What ia the average speed during the first hour (6) What in the average speed for the 4-hour trip? Second hour?CHAPTER @ DIFFERENTIATION For Exercises 22~39, (a) determine the general exprension for the difference quatient, ‘and (6) use the difference quotient to compute the wlope of the secant line connecting points atz= Lands =3, 22 ya fixymast +S 24 y= /(x)~ 10x" + 20x 26 y= f(x) = =a + Be +10 28 ya fix) => 30 y= fi #32 y= Ay f(a) = 1/2 #36 y= f(x) = 2 *38 y=/(z)=—4, 23 y=fa)= +38 2b y=/s)=5 27 y= fle) = 524 + 20% 28 y= f(x) 81 y= f(x) = met 3 y= f(x) = 28 5 y= f(x) = B/z #87 y= fix) — bx" #89 y= f(x) = -6/x THE DERIVATIVE In this section the concept of the derivative will he developed. This concept is fundamental to all that follows, so study this material carefully Instantaneous Rate of Change A distinction needs to be made between the concepts of average rate of change and instantaneous rate of change. Example 25 discussed a situation in which the distance traveled d was estimated as a function of time t by the function d=/(t)= 8:4 8t where O=ts5 ‘Suppose that we are interested in determining how fast the car is moving at the instant that ¢ = 1. We might determine this instantaneous velocity by examining the average velocity during time intervals near t= 1 For instance, the average velocity during the second hour (between ¢ = L and = 2) can be determined as Ad _ /(2)~f0) a 2-1 _ (8(2*) + 82)] — (812) + 8(0)] _ 48-16 ae = 32 mph 1 1 = ‘The average velocity between t= Land t= 1.5 can be determined as Ad _ f(1.5) —fa) 5-1 16 oR 728 mphTHE DERIVATIVE 293 The average velocity between ¢ = 1 and an be dete The average petween #= 1 and f= 3,01 can be determined a Ad _ f(.00) ~f(0) At Lor {8(1.01)* + 8(1.01)] — [8(1) + 340)) é a ice = 24.03 mph Arertrur Bate, 1 ere ice y+ 32 i pe no | £84 = OS how! | ee ve | | Aetna tae, Aor 7 B62 001 peu iN Avermge vec re Aa shown i 9, these computations have been determining the average velocity over shorter and shorter time intervals measured from ¢~ 1, As the time Sedarial hecorhed ubacter (CF ge velocity Ad/Atis ig value. The instantaneous velocity at t= 1 can be defined as this limiting value value, we could compute 1), the av roaching a To determine this limiting fie)—10) at + Be) — (81) + 84) tim HOM IO) «fing mu = 1 ae r= att + 8¢) —1¢ lim SE SO = lim SE tt i =aCHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION Bit ONE im r+ 2 1+2)—24 ‘Thus, the instantaneous velocity of the automobile at t = 1 is 24 mileo per hq Note that the average velocity is measured over a time interval and the inata: neous velocity is defined for a particular point in time. The instantaneous velo is a “onapehot" of what iz happening at a particular instant GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION OP INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF CHANGE, The instantaneuns rate of change of a sooth, continuous function can be represeniea geometrically by the slope of the Line drawn tangent to the curve at the point of intere-t Let's firat determine the menning of tangent line. Consider Pig. 6.20. tangent line at A is the timiting position of the secant line AB as point B comes clo}THE DERIVATIVE and closer to A. Note how tne position of the secant line rotates in a Llockwise manner as Bis drawn closer to A(AB, AB’, AB”, and AB” ). The limiting position of AB ie the line segment MN, This same limiting povition resulta whether A iv approached with secant lines from the left or right of A. The sequence of secant lines AC, AC’, and AC” has the same limiting position MN as C is drawn closer to A. Since MN is the limiting position whether the approach is from the left or right, MN is the tangent line at poin: Not all continuous funct! function. For example, the function y = /(2) = vx), shown in Fig. 6 .21, does not have a tangent at (0, 0). 1 Fight do not converge to the eaie limiting position. ons have unique tangent lines at each point on the he nevant lines drawn from (0, 0) to pointa on the left or Figure 6.21 No tangent line at point A DEFINITION: SLOPE OF CURVE The slope of a curve at x= ais the slope of the tangent lineat x= @. Later we will have a particular interest in di of change in functions. Since the instantaneous rate of change is represented by the slope of the tangent line at the point of interest, we will need a way of determining these slopes of tangent lines. Suppose in Pig. 6 .22 that we are interested in finding the slope of the tangent line at A, There are several different methods we might use pining the instantaneous rate todetermine thie slope. If we wero good at mechanical drawing, we might constru 4 tangent line at point A using graph paper, read from the line coordinates of any two points, and substitute these coordinates into the two-point formula, An alternative approach would be to pick another point Bon the curve. If we connect A and 8B with a secant line, the slope of the line segment AB can be computed and used ea an “approximation to the slope of MN. Obviously, the slope of AB in not a good approximation. However, let's continue, still referring to FigCHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION 6.22. At point B the value of the independent variable is x + Ax; the distance between A and 8 along the x axis is Az. Uning the difference quotient, the alope of ABia ay fies drifts) Az Ax Now, let's observe what happens to our approximation if a second point is chosen closer to point A. If point C is chosen as the second point, the slope of the secant line AC is still a poor approximation, but better than that of AB. And if you look at the slopes of AD gnd AE, you should conclude that as the second point is chosen closer and closer to A, the approximation becomes better. In fact, as the value of Ax gota close to 0, the slope of the tiny line segment connecting A with the second point becomes an excellent approximation. The exact tangent slope can be deter mined by finding the limit of the difference quotiettt as Ax — 0. (6 5) DEFINITION: THE DERIVATIVE Given a function of the farm y = Aaj. the derivative of the function is uy provided this limit exitsRIVATIVE ng points ahould be made regarding this definition COMMENTS ABOUT THE DERIVATIVE 1 Fquat he derivative of the tation dy/dx is used to represent the Jantaneous rate af change in y § notation is distinguished from ye rate of change. ral expression for the slope of the graph of [ with respectto a change in y Ax which represents the « The derivative is a Ifthe mit 1. the derivative does not exist The Limit Approach to Finding the Derivative FINDING THE DERIVATIVE (LiatT APPROACH) A Step 1 {etermine Step 2 Find the Bq. (6 quotient for fusing Eq. ( 6.5). rence quotient as Ax ~*0 using following examples illustrate the limit approach for determining the deriva-CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION Q Step 2 The derivative is the limit of the difference quotient, or dy ~ = Lim (5) =-5 ‘Thus, the derivative is exactly what we anticipated Find the derivative of (2) = SOLUTION Qi Btep 1 In Example 26 we found that the difference quotient for f(z) = x* was Ay Fetes as Q Step 2 The derivative is che limit of the difference quotient, or Ym lim (224.42) USING AND INTERPRETING THE DERIVATIVE To determine the instantancss rate of change (or equivalently. the slope) at any point.on the graph of u function f, substitute the value of the indepen- dent vanable ite the expression for dy dx: The derivative, evaluated at x= which is vead “the derwative of with respect (0) Determine the incantanecua feof change nfs) at x= ~3 (b) Determine the inesantancous rate of change in f(x) at x= 0. (c) Determine the instantaneous rate of change in f(x) at z= +3. SOLUTION In Exerciaa 28 we determined thar dy/de = 22 Anawers to parte o toe are found by sub: atitution into this expreasion ol 108 2 4 2] =20)=0THE DERIVATIVE wo} -as-46 299 POINTS FOU Pin Chop.o.weknow thatthe huction ye xtisquadraue Sketch the function THOUGHT & 6!) corr tbat the valties s/Mich we found in Eaainple 28 seem reasonable as DISCUSSION — 1” Sentiag the slope at > ~ =, 0, and 2 The Somvative extesshon dy/de— auggerta thatas kbeci-nes wore eka", (he slope becomes more neathve: anu reconies more postive the slope becnr’-s -wore pusitive: Does this sewn onert on fipht of your sketch? For the function f(x) = —2x* + 3x ~ 10: to) Daten a (b) Determine the instantaneous rate of change in f(x) at x= 65. (@) Determine where on the function the slope equals 0. SOLUTION (a) Step 1 The difference quotient for fin fx + Ax = fix) Ay Bz ‘Ax _ (E2let Ann? + 3 + Se) — 10) — (28! + 3x — 10) ‘BE 2a? + 2x da + x9) + Sz + 3 Ae ~ 10) + 28" 32410 Az wish deAe-2Ast+ ar +3As— 1042s az Simplifying the numerator gives Ay _ 43 Ax— Ax +3 Ax ax ax Factoring 4 from the numerator and simplifying yield Ay dal-4z 24x43) Ax he “42-2 +3 Btop 2 The derivative of the functi Be im (42-2243) de at, AE BAe or ~ artThe slope will equal 0 w or for thie function when —4z+ 3 0. Solving for x, we has tlope equals 0 oceure when = 4 of the vertex of the parabola represent — 10 using the appropriate formula in jous at a point, it eannot have a derivative at that point, Ho ntinuous and yet there may be points within the domain at which the di r xist Consi 15.23. Suppose wo wih to find the derivative of fa hia canbe datarn Ey (16,7) ot =O, As (0 + x)|—[20)) mie tangHE. DERWATIV Approachlag from the Right As valuating both the Since theme tw not exiat. Therefore, (or th hich is continuous aver ita d derivative does ni hat. # unique tangent line cann ction 6 .4 Follow-up Exercises (b) determine the slope at ris ke 1 fishw ax +6 3 f(x) fe) fx) x 19 f(z) #21 Aix)ed Se CHARIEN 6 UIFFENENITATION DIFFERENTIATION ‘The process of finding « derivative is called differentiation. Fortunately. for us, the process does not have to be as laborious as it may have seemed when we used the limit approach. A set of rules of differentiation exiats for finding the derivatives of many common functions, Although there are many functions for which the derive tive does not exist, our concern will be with functiona which are differentiable Rules of Differentiation ‘The rules of differentiation presented in this section have been developed using the limit approach, The mathematic involved in proving these rules can be fairly complicated. For our purposes it will suffice to present the rules without proof. The appendix at the end of the chapter presanta proofs of selected differentiation rules for anyone interested. The rules of differentiation apply to functions which have specific atn:crural characteristics. A rule will state that if function has specific characteristics. then the derivative of the function will have a resulting form. A» you study these rules remambar that each function can be graphed and that the derivative is a general expression for the slope of the function, An alternative to the dy/dx notation is to let /'(x) (read “f prime of x") represent the derivative of the function f av x ‘That is, given /(x), dy a(x) ‘This notation will be used in presenting the rul RULE 1: CONSTANT FUNCTION 1 f(z) = ¢, where cis any constant Pin =0 Consider the constant function f(x) = 6. Applying rule 1,/’(z) = 0, Ifyou consider what ine function looks like graphically, this result seems reasonable, Te function f(x) = Sgraphe a ‘horizontal line intersecting the y axie at (0, 5).'The alope at all points along suck « tunction equala 0, a RULE 2: POWER RULE Uf fic) = 2%, where isa real number ()= ne" Consider f(x) = x. This function is the same as /(x) = x! Applying rule 2 to find the derivaDIFFERENTIATION 303 ‘This implion that for the function /(2) = +, the alope equala 1 recognize that /(x) = zis a linaar function with slepe of 1 all pointa. You should Consider f(x) = x*. Applying rule 2 to find the derivative, n= 6 and f(z) = 520 Consider f(x) = 1/2" ALGEBRA FLASHBACK = Rewriting fas f(x} = 2°, the derivative can be found using rule 2. Since n = ~3, Consider f(x) = Vx ALGEBRA FLASHBACKSS 304 CHAPTER G DIFFERENTIATION PRACTICE EXERCISE Determine f'(x) if (a) Ax)= x4, (b) Ax)= 1/4 Anniver: (a) M(x) = 6x4, (Pane ay RULE 3: CONSTANT TIMES A FUNCTION IEFleV = c= glx), where cis a constant and g is a differentiabje function id= erg’) Consider /(x) = 103%. Applying nile 3 to find the derivative, ¢ = 10, g(x) = 2°, and fay erg') = 10(22) Applying rules 2 and 3, fad = (l=) RULE 4; SUM OR DIFPERENCE OF FUNCTIONS M f(x) = we) & a), where wand rare differentiable, 4x) alia) + od Rule 4 implies that the derivative of a function formed by the sum (difference) of two or more component functions is the sum (difference) of the derivatives of the component functions. Consider the function f(z) = x?—5r Hx) = uls) — v(x), where According to rule 4, f can be expressed ao u(x) and v(x) =ePRACTICE EXERCISE Wy fix) u (at ela, whe and 1 ferentah t |CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION NOTE As with the previous two examples, many functions can be algebraically may Fated into 29 equivalent form, This can be useful for two reasons. First, rewriting. 2 function in an equivalent form can allow the use of derivative rules whicts are more efficicul or easier to remember. Secund, (inding, the derivative of both th onunal (unction and an equivalent form of the function provides a check answer PRACTICE EXERCISE Find, F(x) iF fix) = (9 — 2x8) — 3.22 + 10), Anawer: (Ua) = ~ 1st + 4984 — Sx" + 30, RULE 6: QUOTIENT RULE _ Mf Fix) = u(x}/vl2), where u pnd ware differentiable and Ax) + a(x) — ule) + 0's) {ova}? Verbally, the derivative of a quotient is the denominator times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator, all di vided by the square of the denominator. ple 35 we used the power rule to determine that the derivative of f(x) = 1/x" is /"(3) = -3/x* Since / has the form of a quotient, we can, aa an alternative approach, appl; role 6. If u(x) = Land v(x) = 24, u(s}u’(s) = u(syu'(s) owr _ 240) — fi Consider f(x) = (3x*—5)/(1.— x), Applying rule 6 with u(x)=as*—6 and v(x) = (=), sq) we (LT #NGH) — (32? —)(—3e4) re (-2DIFFERENTIATION a —— | PRACTICE EXERCISE ™ m 10—x Find (Un if Aa) S55 Section 6 .5 Follow-up Exercises For Exercises 1-38, find /"(x), 1 fix) = 140 B f(x) = 0.55 B f(x) = 2? 4x 7 f(x) = 2x" pina 11 fix) = ix 13 fiz) a” 15 fix) Ifa) a= 19 f(z) =5/s? 21 fix) =~ 10/s* fi) =~ 1a 25 fix) = 27a 27 fx) = (x9 — 2a)ix" + 623) 29 f(x) ~ (x? — + 3)(x* — 108") BA fla) = (Gxt — Be + 1)(24/4 + 6) fa) x/(1 = x*) 35 f(x) = (10 ~x)/(x*-+2) 37 f(z) = 1/(4x* ~ 3x? +1) 89 f(x) = 10-5 41 fx)= 24/9 6x +8 43 fiz) ax' +a, +a, 46 f(x) x'/(1—x*) AT fis) — 24/3 + 9x Sx‘ — 15x" + Ge Ansuoer: (x)= (x? = 20x 1)/(z" + 1) = 2 f\x) = —55 4 fle)= 43° 6 fix) =—3x/4+9 Bi(x)=—s/3 10 f(x) = Vx" 12 414) = 14 f(x) = 8 16 fix) == 18 f(z) = 23~ Ve 20 fix) = 3/53" 22 f(x) = 2/27 24 fix Ae 26 fiz) 1/6 Vz 28 fin) = (210) 29+ 0 30. f(x) = (24 — Sx*(10 + x — dx") B2 f(x) — [(x + 3)/2\{[x* — 4x + 9) 34 /(x) = 4x/(6x? — 5) 36 f(x) = 3x*/(2* = 22 +1) 38 f(x) = (—x' + L)/(z*— 20) For Exercises 39-48, (a) find /“(2), and (b) determine values of x for which f“(x) =D. 40 f(x) 8r2= 0 $1 42 f(s) = 16x4/4 —« 44 f(x) =—1/x 46 f(x) = 2*— 16 +5 48 f(x) =—s/(x—5)6 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION f differentiation which builc RULE 7: POWER OF A FUNCTION This rule looks very similar the special ease of this rule wh g nile 7 results a the power rule (rule 2). In fact, the power ru ee u(z) equals x, When u(z) =x, u'(x) = 1 pply T= a9. The 10 f can be rewritten an {(z) = (724 5x * 5: —9. Applying rule 7 plies, w ~ \(Te!— Sa - 9s" — 5 (4x? = $722 be — 9) t © Mst—4 r= anider the function Thia function has the form stated in rule 7, where u ia the rational function 32/(1 — 4 Applying rule 7 [note that rule 6 must be weed ta find u's)| RULE & BASE-e EXPONENTI\i. FUNCTIONS | PRACTICE EXERCISECHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION Consider f(x) = In(6x?— 2x +1), Applying rule 2, ulx) Bx 2242 10r~2 me fx) PRACTICE EXERCISE Find f(x) if x)= In4x? — 16x). Annowr Pn = (Bx — 16 Chain Rule Rule 7 (power of « function) waa presented expeditiously and without the attentio} it should have been given, Rule 7 is a special case of the more general chain r RULE 10: CHAIN RULE If y= fu) is a differentiable tunction and w= g(x) is a diferent tion, then dy do dw we de de Recall that in Chap. 4 wa examined componite functions ~-furctions whos values depend upon other functions. The chain rule epecifically apples to compoy ite functions. Conaidar the two functions y= fu) = 20 —3u and us g(x) 5x—4 Note that the value of y ultimately depends upon x, We can see this by observin] that if x increases by 1 unit, u increases by 6 unita, And an increase in u of 5 unit resulta in a decrease in y of (3)(6) — 16 unita, To determine how the value of responds to changes in x, we can apply the chain rule. Since311 ADDITIONAL RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION = (2x8 — 4112) axl Rule 7 would approach thin probli m by first re uest=1 ist ae ‘The expression for dy/dx ia found directly as dy mAxt 4x — 4x 4x? Sr which is the same result. Given y= f(u) = ~ Su where w= g(x) = x44 x, oy ay, du aera ae (5 = 5dr +8 Rewriting this result as a fonction of x give dy Fem Wiles + Bayt — Blas? + 8) = [Set + 62*-+ 99) — Baz — (Bx" + 18x! + 272? — 5)(4x" + 3) = 12x! + 725% + 108! — 202 + 9x4 + Sax + B12? —15 = 12x" + Bix" + 1622" — 20x" + BLx*— 15Section 6 .6 Follow-up Exercises6.7 INSTANTANEOUS-RATE-OF-CHANGE, INTERPRETATION 33 For Exercises 53-64, (0) tind /’(2), and (b) determine values of x for which /”(z) 53 fi) = 10" 64 f(z) = (22 ~ 8 BG fis) = ve 56 fix) Ve +6 87 fiz} et 58 f(z) =e" BO f(s) = xe 60 fix) = ae" @1 fiz) inx 62 f(x) = in 30x ~ 32 83 f(x) = In 2x2 64 f\x)~ lo x— 2/2 INSTANTANEOUS-RATE-OF-CHANCE INTERPRETATOON We stated earlier that the derivative can be used to determine instantaneous rate of change. In Example 25 the function am p(t) ar + st described the distance (in miles) an automobile traveled as « function of me (in hours). The instantaneous velocity of the car at any point in time in found by evaluating the dacivative at that value of t. To determine the instantaneous velocity at f = 3, the dasivative fey eet e aunt be evaluated at = 3, or 11(3) = 10(8) + 8 = 56 mph ‘An object is dropped from a cliff which is 1,296 feet above the ground, The height of the object is described as a function of time. The function is hm fle) = = 160 + 2,296 where h equale the height in feet and ¢ equals time measured in seconds from the time the object in dropped. (a) How far will the object drop in 2 seconds” (b) What is the instamaneous velocity of the object at f= 27 (c) What ia the velocity of the object at the inatant it hits the ground? SOLUTION (a) The change in the height in Ah = f(2)— f(0) = [~ 1612)" + 1,296} — |~ 1640)" + 1,296] (64 + 1,296) ~ 1,296 = 64 Thus, the object drops 64 feet during the firet 2 seconds, (8) Since f/(t) = ~324, the object will have # velocity equal toCHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION 64 feet/eecond at (= 2. The minus sign indicates the direction of velocity (down). (e) In order to determine the velocity of the object when it hita the ground, we must know when it will hit the ground. ‘The object wll hit the ground when h = 0, or when 0 If-we solve for f, and t = £9, Siacea negative root is meaningless, we can conclude that the object will hit the grounid after 9 seconds, The velocity at this time will be /’(9) = 3209) feot/secoud (Tracking an Epidemic: Motivating Scenario) A Gu epidemic is spreading through large midwestern state. Based upon similar epidemics which have occurred in the past, epidemiologists have formulated a mathematical function which estimates the number of persons who will be aflicted by the fu. Specifically, the function is 0.38" + 10r + Yoo + 250 where nequals the number of persuns afflicted, t equals time, measured in days, since initial decection by health deparinuent officials, and the relevant (roatrieted) domain ia 0 Using this estimating function: (a) What interpretation can be given to #(0)? (8) How meny persons are expected to contract the fu after 10 days? After 20 days’? (c) What is the average rate at which the fu ie expected to spread between t= 10 and (d) What is the instantaneous rate at which the fluia expected to be opreading att = 117 At e127 (e) What interpretation js suggested by the remults in part d? SOLUTION (a) ((0) would be interpreted aa the estimated number of persons having come down with {the disease at the time of initial detection of the disease by health department officials, Accopding to this function, approximately 250 persona would have been afflicted, (by FAO) ~ =0.3(10)? + 10(20)% + 300110) + 250 00 + 1,000 + 3,000 + 260 3,950 persone 1420) = ~0.3(20)? + 10(20)? + 800120) + 250 400 + 4,000 + 6,000 + 250 7,830 personsINSTANTANEOUS RATE-OF CHANCE INTERPRETATION 35 cl ‘An _ 1/20) — /(10) _ 7,850 — 3,980 _ 3,900 a” 20-10 0 10 390 persons/day The instantaneous rate at which the Bu is apreading ia eetiznated by /’(¢). P(t) = =0,984 + 20¢ + 300 Att= 11 FC) = 0.901)" + 20011) + 200 108.9 + 220 + 300 ~ 411.1 persone/day Atr= 12, 1°12) = = 0,9(12)" + 20(12) + 300 = 129.6 + 240-+ 300 = 410.4 pernons/day fe) The, x les int past d suggest that the rate at which persons are being afflicted by the disease has declined between the 11th and 12th days, (Exponential Growth Processes) Exponential growth processes were introdueed in Chap. 7. The generalized exponential growth fonction was presented in Eq. (7.9) a V= fit) = Vee that these processes are characterized by a constant percentage rate of growth. ' find the derivative F(t) = Va(ie™ which ean be written a [(t) = kVge ‘The derivative represents the instantaneous rate of change in the value V with respect to a change in 1, The percentage rate of change would be found by the ratio Instantaneius rate of change _ /'(t) Value the function fit) For thie fune316 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION ‘This contirme that for an exponential ¢rowth function of the form of Ka, (7.9), k representa the percentage rata of growth. Given that kin a constant, the percentage rate of growth isthe ume for all values of t u Section 6 .7 Follow-up Exercises 1 The function h = /(t) = 2.6¢°, where 0 = ¢= 90, describes the height A(in hundreds of feet) of n rocket t seconds after st has been launched (a) What is the average velocity during the time interval 0 <¢= 10? (b) What is the instantaneous velocity at ¢ = 10? At ¢= 20? 2 Anobject is launched from ground level with an initial velocity of 256 feet per second. The function which describes the height h of the ball is > fle) = 2560 — 1602 where A is measured in feet. and in time measured in seconds since the ball was thrown, (a) What ia the velocity of the ball at ¢ = 1 second? (6) When will the ball return to the ground? {c) What is the velocity of the ball when it hits the ground? 8 A ball indropped from the roof of # building which is 256 feet high. The height of the ball is described by the function hm f(t) — 160? + 256 where hequals the height in feet and cequola tioe measured in seconds from when the ball ‘was dropped. (a) What is the average velocity during the timo interval 1 <¢-= 2? (0) What is the instantancous velocity at t = 37 (¢) What is the velocity of the ball at the instant it hits the ground? 4 Epidemic Control An epidemic is spreading through a large western state, Health officials estimate that the number of persons who will be afficted by the disease is a function of time since the disease was first detected. Specifically, the function ia n= f(t) = 900r? ~ 200% where n equale the number of persons and 0s ¢ < 60, mesmured in daya, (a) How many persons are expected to have caught the disease after 10 days? ARer 30 days? (b) What is the average rate at which the disease is expected to spread between t = 10 and t= 30? (e) What ia the instantaneous rata at which the disease is expected to be spreading at = 20? 5 Population Growth ‘The population of a country is estimated by the function Pe where P equals the population (in millions) and ¢ equals time measured in years since 1990.HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVE M7 (a) What i the population expected to mqual in the year 2000 () Determine tne {e) What is the instants: year 2000° Inventment Appreciati recent ywars. The functi rt laneous rate of phange in the papulatie= af rate nf change inf population expected to equal in the rtwwork bas been appreciating in vali A tare piece Ve 1.be0aH estimates the value V of the artwork (measured in miilicnsof dollars) asa function t. measured in years since 1960 (a) What is the value estimoted tw equal in the year 1986? In the y 4) Determine the general the artwork fc) At what rate Is the value of the artwork expected to he increasing in Endangered Species The populati fun vs rate of change in the value n the year 2000” lining, The Ww rare species of wildlife ia P= TE pth estimates the population P of the species an» function of time, menmured ia years since 1980, (e) What is the population expected to {b) Determine the general expression f tion, (c) At what rate in the population estimated to be declining in the year 1996? @ Amet Depreciation The value of a particular asset is estimated by the fun squal in the year 19967 the instantaneous rate of change in the popula V = 240,0006-9% where V is the Value of the aaset and ¢ is the age of the agset, measured in yearn (a) What i the value of the asiet expected to equal when 4 years old? {b) Determine the general exprossion for the instantaneous rate of change in the valve of the nsset (e) What is the rate of change expectod -qual when the asset ix 10 years old? .8 HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVES Given « function /, there are other derivatives which can be defined. This section discusses these higher-order derivatives and their interpretation. The Second Derivative ‘The derivative f' of the function / is often referred to ax the first derivative of the function. The adjective first is used to distinguish this derivative from other deriv. atives associated with u function. The order of the first derivative is 1 The second derivative f" of a function is the derivative of the first derive tive. Atx, itis denoted by either d*y/dx* or f(x). The second derivative is found by applying the same rules of differentiation ax were used in finding the firstFigure 6.24 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION f ay x Sx x7-3r+10 a m as? 4 +5 Be ix derivative. Table 6 .11 illustrates the computation of first and second derivatives for several functions, Just a8 the first derivative is a measure of the instantaneous rate of change in the value of y with respect to a change in x, the second derivative is a méasure of the instantaneous rate of change in the value of the first derivative with respect to & change in x. Described differently, the second derivative is a measure of the instan- taneour rate of change in the slope ivith roxpect to a change in x Consider the function f(x) —1?, The first and second derivatives of this function are [')=—2r Figure 6 24 illustentes the graphs of f, function fis a parabola which is concave down with the vertex at (0, 0) ‘The tangent slope is positive to the left of the vertex but becomes Jess positive as x approaches 0, To the right of the vertex the tangent slope is negative, becoming more negative (decreasing) as x increases, The graph off’ indicates the value of the slope at any point on f, Note that values of f'(x) are positive, but becoming lees xapproaches 0 from the left. And /’(z) becomes more and more negative ‘ae the value of x becomen more poritive. Thus, the graph off’ i consistent with our observations of the aketch of f ‘The second derivative is a measure of the instantaneous rate of change in the first derivative or in the slope of the graph of a function. Since f(x) = ~ 2, the rate of chiange in the first derivative is constant over the entire function, Specifically, f"(x) = —2 suggests that everywhere on the function the slope is decreasing at an fis) re +HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVES instantaneous rate of 2 units for each unit that x increases. Note that the graph o is a linear function with slope of — Some earlier examples in this chapter discussed functions having the fo d= f(t), where d represents the distance traveled after time ¢. We concluded that the instantaneous velocity at any time ¢ was represented by the first derivative F(t). The second derivative of this type of function /”(t) provides a measure of the instantaneous rate of change in the velocity with respect to = change in tim Measured in units of distance per unit of time aquared (for example, ft/sec" an km/h?), this second derivative represents the instantaneous eeeeleration of an object. If 2 +3 the expression representing the instantaneous velocity is f(t) ae? —4e+9 and the expression representing the instantaneous aeceleration in f"(t)= 6-4 Third and Higher-Order Derivatives Further derivatives can be determined for functions. These derivatives become les easy to underetand from an intuitive standpoint, However, they will he useful to later, and they heVe particular velue at higher levels of mathematical analysis DEFINITION: nth-ORDER DERIVATIVE The nih-order derivative wted by A, is found by differentiating the derivative * 30x" — 40x? + 122" — 183 +2 10x? + 24s — 18 WOx + 24CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION All additional higher-order derivatives will aleo equal (+ NOTE © For polynomial tunctiuns 0 degree n, the tsi dervati isa polynomial function Of degree m— 1. Each successive ilerivative is a’ polynomial function of degree ‘one less than the previous derivative (until the degree vt a derivative equals 01, Section 6 8 Follow-up Exercises Por Exercise 1-30, (a) find f'(x) and f(x), (b) evaluate /"(1) and /”(1), and (ec) verbalize the meaning of f’(1) and f"(1), 1 fly 15. 3 f(a) Arto 5 f(b~ bs T fim xt 24/341 9 fxr AL f(z) = 82— 28 13 fix) = v/s 1B fix) (7 — 53" 17 fiz) Er 18 fix) =e 21 fix)—e" 23 f(z) = In 2s 28 fix) = Inlz*—5) r= 29 f(x) =e Inx 27 [x)= 2 f(t) 04-10 4 f(a)= x? ~ 151 +10 f(x) = Te Det + Beth B fox) = x*/5~ 3°/3 + 100 10 f(r (2? = 9) 12 fix} = fx" — 1037 14 fis} = =4/2 18 fut 18 f(r) = V0 20 fix) =i 22 f= 24 fix) ln 4x 26 fix) ins? +4) 28 fide 30 frie In'x BL The height of « falling object dropped from a height of 1,000 feet in described by the function f= 1,000 ~ 1617 where h is teasured in feet and ¢ is measured in seconds, (a) What is the velocity at ¢-= 4? . (b) What is the acceleration at ¢ = 4? ‘The height of a falling object dropped from height of 1,20 fet ie decribed by the function f= 1,200 ~ 16¢? ‘where h is measured in feet and ¢ in menaured in seconds, (a) What is the velocity at t= 8? At e= 5? (b) What is the acceleration at ¢= 3? At t= 5? Aball thrown upward from the roof of a building which is 600 feet high will beat « height of h feet after f seconds, as described by the function h= fit) = = 160? + 601 + 600IMPORTANT FORMULAS {a} Whot is the height of the ball after 3 necon: tb) What is the velocity ofthe ball after d seconds? (A negative sign impliesa downward direction.) fc) Whot is the acceleration of the bail at = 0? At ¢= 5° Abba thrown upward from the roof of a building which ia 750 feet high willbe at a height h feet after t seconds, as decribed hy the function nm fit) = 168? + 508 + 750 {u) What is the deight of the bail after 5 seconds? (®) What is the velocity of the hell after 5 seconds? (A nezative sign implies a downward direction ! (c) What iv the acceleration of the ball nt ¢= 07 At ¢= 67 Tn Exercises 35-50, find all higher-order derivatives 35 f(x) = 16x? — 4x? 37 f(x) = mx+b 36 f(x) = 2,500 38 /(x)=—2/4+10 SO f(zy ~ 2° — Sat ~ 30x? SL fx) = aye? + ax" 7 a2 + ay 43 flz) = 10x4— 223 +2 40 f(x) = (2-107 Mz [UEP = (a,x FO, N,x Oy) 44 fs) 2! + Set 45 f(x) = (ax +b) 46 f(x) (cr dye (x) = 481) =F 47 f(z) = 024+ 0,24 48 fz) =e" BO f(s) =e" IMPORTANT FORMULAS By fe + Ax) =F) pimerence quationt (6.5) ax dy _ 4 Mx +Ax) — Mx) a 3 2 = jim Derivative (6.7) Rules of Differentiation 1 Iff(x)=c, f(x) =0 (Constant function) 321CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIA If f(x) = x", 4x) = ne” (Power rule Uf f(x) = c+ glx), f(x)=e>8'(x) (Constant times a function| If f(x) = u(x) + v(x), f(x) = u'(x) + v'(x) (Sum or difference] Af f(x) = u(x)o(x), ["(x) = u'(x)u(x) + v'(x)u(x) (Product rule v(x)u'(x) — u(x)o'(x) [eleF Hf (x) = (u(x), f(x) = nfu(e tu’) (Power of « function! If f(x) =e", f(x) =u'(x)e"™ — (Baye-e exponential functions! If f(x) = In u(x), f'(x) = u'(x)/u (x) (Natural logarithm functions) If f(x) = u(x)/u(z), f(x) = (Quotient rule! (Chain rule Q ADDITIONAL EXERCISES Section 6.1 1 Une dhe graph of ie fumction sa Pig, G25 ty deter fnvliveed Liane (a) lim f(z) b) lim f(z) (d) ties f(z) tin fix) {g) tim fiz) Figun 6.25 2 Use the graph of the function in Fig. 15.26 to determine the indicnted limita (a) lim f(z) (b> tim f(z) (eo) mfx) (@) tim, f(s) fe) tion f(x)ADDITIONAL EXERCISES , Sd ' + aa | —_— Section 6.2 For the following exercises, find the indicated limit, if it exiata Inthe following exercinen, determine wheth they occur. 1B (x)= x'/(x*— 1) wre {K" IETS + there are any discontinuities 16 f(x) = (x? —9)/(18 ~ x*} 18 f(x) = (x? = 9)/(64 ~ x*) soj-{_f-* Yt ifx<6ES 34 CHAPTER 6 SIFFFRENTIATION 21 f(x) = 25x7/(24 — Bx) 23 fiz) = idist +4) Section 15.3 J{x) = (9 2)/(2" = 3242) Mfr) = (9 ~ 3x" + De + 1)/(z? +6) For each of the fullowing functions, determine the average rate of changy in the value of yin 26 ym fishes’ + 2x8 27 ya lini= ix ya fa) stort yo fz) =x = 2? 26 y= six) = Set +1 28 ye fixie 3" 90 y= fz) = 302" = 103 82 y= fx) = 5x9 + 2x? —B 84 y= f(x) = 1/2? ‘The population of a city haa increased annually as indicated in the following table Population, Year Millions 1986 1 2.70 1988 2.80 1989 2.88 1990 2.90 1991 G01 ‘At what average rate did the population change between 1986 and 1991? Between 1987 and 19907 For the following exercises, (a) determine the general expression for the difference quotient, and (b) use the difference quotient to compute the slope of the secant line connect ing points at ¢= Lana = 2. 36 f(x) = 527+ oe 38 f(x) = 10 40 f(x) = Ort +x +50 42 /(x) > Wr? + e+ 44 [x)= 3 $46 [x)= 48 fix) mart 64 SoMa 97 f(z) -3/x 38 f(x) = 22 +7 at fa) = 24/3 43 f(x) Be" ax +1 45 f(z) ix +5 $47 fle) = 10/e 749 f(x) ax? + bx te For the fullowing functions, (9) find the derwative \ising the !'mit approach, and (6) deter mine any values =~: wnich the slope equais 0, 50 f(x) —— ax? + 6x ot fl)=—3/sADDITIONAL EXERCISES 52 fis) = ext 954 fiz) =2* 56 f(x) = (x4/3)— 9x - 10 68 f(x) ~—10 + 40r Section 6 . For the following exercises, find f"(x). 60 fix~ Hh ‘ 62 fl) = ae + ‘) G4 f(x) = Ux — 152" +100 86 f(x) = vs" 68 fa) = 10x 70 f(x) s+5rt—x 72 f(x)= "Va TA fNxy= (WW x8)(x* 264 + 2) Section 6.6 For the following exercises, find /“(x) 76 f(s) = (2+ 4) 78 f(x) ~ (4x — 3x4 25)" 80 fix) = V2 10 82 f(x) = 1/410— 84 f(x) =e" /2 86 f(x) 88 /(x) 90 f(x) = (e™*! — 5)¢ 92 fz) = (a—be-*)" 94 fix) = In(ax? + br? + ox +d) 96 f(x) = ints — 2x) 98 f(x) =x? lnx 100 f(x) =[inte* + 1) sje "102 fx) = [lx - SEF a — 2) 53 f(z) = 4x? — 22 °68 f(x) = 57 flx) = (24/3) ~ 16x-+ 45 59 f(x) = ax? + be G1 (x) = 25x? + 15x 83 f(x) = 15x7/(1 — 2") 8G f(x) = 5x4/3 + 2x 87 fix) = 2/4 2°) xa axt 69 x)= 1 7 fi ue 78 [x)= (x—7)x? — Bs? + Bs) 75 flz)— (6-24 8x3)(x"+ 5x*—10x") 77 fix) = (5x4 10x)* 78 f(x) = (8-23) BL fx) VP FE 83 f(x) = 1/ Vx? Bx 85 f(x) = 10%" 87 f(x) = 2x" 89 f(z) = 24/40" 81 fi) =(1- ert 93 f(z) = x"/e™ 95 f(z) = In bs 97 /(x) = In 9x 99 f(x) = x*in(x—5) 101 f(z) = (In x)" #103 f(x) =[(e?+3)/(4—3))*326 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION #104 f(a) = [Fa #108 fla) = {te4)]4/(29)* 106 f(x) = (2 ~824)/In(x~ 5) 107 f(x) = (x/In x 108 f(x) = x* In(2x* + 4) 100 /(2) = in(5x?— 2s) For the following exercises, find dy/dx 110 y= flu) = Sandu giz) 843 y= flu) = (20 +3) and um glx) = x? — ae 112 y= flu) = ui and um g(x) = 2! 5 113 y= (ul SAF end um gle) 42 14 a ‘ ym flu) = Su? = Su asd u = g(x) == Section 6.7 116 116 117 118 A ball thrown upward from the roof af a building whieh in 900 feat high will ba at height of h feet after ¢ seconds, we described by the function hm /(t) = —16t"+ 802 + 900 (a) What is the height of the ball after 4 seconds? (b) What is the velocity of the ball after 4 seconds? (c) What is the acceleration of the ball at ¢= 0? At t= 4? ‘An object it launched from ground level with an initial velocity of 612 feet per necond. ‘The function which describes the beight of the ball ix f= f(t) = 512t — 162? where A in measured in feet and ¢ is time measured in seconds since the ball was thrown, (a) What in the velocity of the ball at t= 2 seconds? (b) When will the bell return to the ground? (¢) What in the velocity of the ball at the instant it hits the ground” Population Growth The population of a city is estimated by the function P= fit) 120m where P equals the population (in millions) and t equala time meaaured in yaare since 1988. (a) What is the population expected to equal in 1995? (b) Determine the expression for the instantaneous rate of change in the population, (c) At what rate is the population expected to be changing in 1905? Real Estate Devaluation Following a rapid incroaso in the values of residential homes during the mid-1960», real estate valifes in the Northeast began to drop in 1990. The functionAPPENDIX: PROOFS OF SELECTED RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION 327 V= f(t) = 140,000¢~#400 function which estimates the average valus V (in $) of axingle-family residence in one particular township, where ¢ equals time measured in months since January 1, 1990. (a) What was the average value eatimated to equal of July 1, 1990? On January 2, 1902? (0) Determine the general expression for the instantaneous rate of change in the average value of « single-family recidence in this tows. (c) At what rata in the vclue changing on January 1, 1991? O CHAPTER TEST won (Be De 2 Determine whether there are any discontinuities on fand, if, where they occur if =4— 26 (o= KOT a+e 3 Determine dy/dx using the limit approach if f(x) = —3x* — 2x 4 Find /’(x) if (a) f(x) = 6/ Vx" (2) f(x) = xte (6) f(x) = Tx* — 8x* + 3x" + 90 (e) f(x) = In(6x" — x?) (c) fx) = (18 + x)/(x* + 8)* (A) fa) = (e* in) 5 Given f(2) = 15x"— 90x — 36, determine the locations of any pointa on the graph of /(x) where the slope equals 0. 6 Find all higher-order derivatives of / if 12) = SS 622+ 108 7 Find dy/ds if yaflujsutt3u and = um g(x) = 27+ 10 APPENDIX: Proofs of Selected Rules of Differentiation ‘The first proof is “partial” in that it proves rule 2 when n is « positive integer, Proof of this rule for all other values of n is beyond the scope of this text,328 CHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION PURER 1: (=) — <5, where nin positive intoge, SGU proor then f‘(z) = nx [a+ a) = (5 + Ax) A(x + Ax) f(a) = (z+ Aa = 2" By the binomial theorem, for n= a positive integer, into f(x + As) — f(x) yields Pix + Ax) — f(z) x" + ne dod + oe =” Axl Dividing by Ax and taking the |i as Ar 0, we get EBD L tn [oe tee MOD any ht ofc tin [pes + +1Aa) ] ] or Fils) = nxt! If f(x)—c- g(x), where © is a constant and g is a dilferentiable Pa) =e gta). ROOF” Made gts) fix Bx) = co g(z + Ax) Mx + x) ~ fez) =e gle + As) ~e- als) =clele + Ax) = a(s)] fat Av fix) | ela(x + Ax) ~x12)}APPENDIX) PROOFS OF SELECTED RULES OF DIFFERENTIATIUN gist an ar fa)= eg) Iff{2) = wiz) = va), where w acc v are differentiable, then f(x) = u/(x) 2 u(x) The proof presented is for the “sum” of u(z) and v(x). PROOF f(x) = ula) + ula} {lx + Ax) = ula + Ax) + ole + Ax) fla Ax) ~ fla) = [ula + Aa) + ve + As] = ful) + 06a) [let ds) — fla) | (ule + As) + ule + Aad] = tule) + vlD] ar a (xt dx) ~ ulz) ibaa) -[ ar az *. [uetapmunh vist Ax) as a ar u(e+ Ax) — ula), ule + As) — of) “es z ig A= ar — £43) ul) + vt) If fix) = u(x) - vfs), where u and v are differentiable, then f'tx) ™ uta) - vlx) + vad + lx) x) = u(x) * of) fort As) = ule + Aa) - ule + Aap flr+ As) — fx) ule + Ax) ule + Ax) ~ u(x) © 02) Adding ond subtracting the quantity u(z + Ax} - v(x) to the right side gives u(x + Ax) > u(x + Ax) — ule + Ax) > v(x) + ule + Ax} - u(x) ~u(eio(e) mulx + Axifo(x + Ax) —vl2)} + v(zilu( + Ax) = u(a)} fis + ds) ~ f(x) £00) | ix + Avluls + Ax) — v6 Toladluts + Ox) — wea] jini ar ar wet x) 060). ute be mute + Ba) MEF AD OEE yey ME fis ds)= 16 | vist and = im lino ulx + Ax) csCHAPTER 6 DIFFERENTIATION (ey wae uted eee ae im UE Ax) — vta) as u(x + Ax) — u(x) + lism v(x) + lim 1G) = ulz) vila) + VG) u(x) o's) + ule) + ula) + v(2) Ria If f(x) = u(s)/o(s), where u and » are differentiable and u(x) * 0, then ula) = w’(e) = ule) - o's) [el re oe) ul + As) [at eS ule +A2)_ ula) Na+ ds) =") = ut) which can be rewritten as tubs + Az) us) —ulx) - u(x + Ax) ule + As) « vl) Mat bx) — 103) = Adding and subtracting tha quantity [uls}o(s)]/[ule + As)u(s)] yialda lx + Ax) = vis) — ula) + vfs + Ax) Ole + As) + 0G) auls)s vex) wt) + vl) Ue + As) via) UE AR) 0G) f(z + Ax) - fiz) = ‘Rearranging gives ul + Ax) > 0(2) = ula) + 0s) ~ ule + As) - u(x) + ule) - v(x) x ¥ ds) ole) — Viadlule + Ax) — u(x)] — uls)fule + Ax) ~ v(x) ule Ax) - uls) fis + ai) -/@) = He + 4x) — fis) _ vlailuls + Ax) — u(x)) — ulz)fols + As) ~ vt 55 he v(x + Ax) - u(s)APPENDIX: PROOFS OF SELECTED RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION u(t ax) - u(x) vixt ax) =v vfs) lx) mP uit Ax) - Ux) uct ups) WS whic ax) > ul) Han vfx) . Ctr 2% 6x) - Uf) _ Thor w/a) Him viet ox) - wf) 2 Ex iu a wf). itn) «vied Pts} = a atx) » (wl)