Module overview-NRPF 3

Introduction

This module provides students with an introduction to research methods and to the types of skills
necessary for the planning, data gathering and dissemination stages of business-related research.

Topics covered include: 

 Research Design;
 Methods of Data Collection;
 Approaches to Analysing Data and Writing a Research Proposal.

Objectives

 To equip students with a basic understanding of the underlying principles of quantitative and
qualitative research and the links between the two
 To introduce students to the key data generation methods of current use in public health and
health-related research
 To enable students to choose the most appropriate research method to address a particular
research question
 To enable students to gain a basic overview of a range of quantitative and qualitative
approaches to analysis
 To provide students with the knowledge and skill to undertake the design of a health-related
research proposal

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the module, students will be able to: -

 Describe a range of quantitative and qualitative research designs used in health research and
identify the advantages and disadvantages associated with these designs.
 Design an appropriate mixed-method research study to answer a health-related research
question.
 Choose appropriate quantitative or qualitative method to collect data.
 Write a research proposal suitable for submission to a research funding body.

Topics to be covered

1. Introduction
Introduction to the research, research process
2. Designing a Research Project
creating a conceptual framework, the research statement/ question/ hypothesis, research aim
and objectives, methodology and method rationale.
3. Developing a Theoretical Framework
Writing a literature review Research Methodology, quantitative qualitative and mixed
methods approach - designing an appropriate methodological framework

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 4. Data Analysis
Developing analytical frameworks, describing and interpreting data, the role of theory in data
analysis

5. Conclusions & Recommendations

Coming to conclusions, making recommendations

Teaching Methods

This is a distance learning module. The teaching methods include guided independent study and
facilitated discussions with constructive feedback. Online resources, including reading, audio/visual
materials and self-assessment exercises, will be used to provoke critical thinking.

Lesson 1.1-2 WHAT IS RESEARCH

Management research is usually considered part of the social sciences, which is the field of enquiry
concerned with human beings and how they behave and interact either as individuals or as a group.
Like many other aspects of management studies, management research is a diverse field. It is used in
many different contexts including commercial and not-for-profit organizations, different industries
and different national and cultural settings. As well as its own, and growing, body of knowledge it
draws on the theories and practices of other disciplines such as economics, sociology and
psychology.

Research in common language refers to a search for knowledge. The Oxford learners dictionary
defines research as “a careful study of a subject, especially in order to discover new facts or
information about it” while the Marriam Webster dictionary refers to research as “studious inquiry or
examination; especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation
of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of
such new or revised theories or laws”

It has also been defined as a scientific and systematic search for valid information on a specific topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. From the academic side the term research is used
in a technical sense which depicts the activities involved in the process of undertaking. Such
activities include defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

Management research is conducted either to expand knowledge about a particular aspect or to find a
solution to a particular problem. Business research studies can be classified into two categories—
basic research and applied research.

However, the results of the study may have implications for a new theory of learning. In the same
way, a scientist who is conducting basic research to test a theory of learning may discover results that
can be applied in the classroom.

Applied research is intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems. Research
studies intended to answer theoretical questions or gather knowledge simply for the sake of new
knowledge are classified as basic research.

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Basic research refers to a focused, systematic study or investigation undertaken to discover new
knowledge or interpretations and establish facts or principles in a particular field. In other words, it is
a research aimed primarily at gaining knowledge rather than solving a pragmatic problem. The
underlying motive is to increase knowledge about particular phenomena by testing, refining and
elaborating theory without concern for practical application.

Applied research refers to investigation undertaken to discover the applications and uses of theories,
knowledge and principles in actual work or in solving problems. In other words, it is any research
that is used to answer a specific question, determine why something failed or succeeded, solve a
specific, pragmatic problem, or to gain better understanding. 

Therefore, research that is directed toward solving practical problems is often classified as applied
research; in contrast, studies that are intended to solve theoretical issues are classified as basic
research. Although these different kinds of research begin with different goals, they are both
legitimate sources of research ideas and, occasionally, they can overlap. For example, the HR
department of a company may initiate an applied study to find out if there is a significant difference
between employee performance between female and male employees.

Although the purpose of these two research forms varies, there is not much difference in the research
methods and tools used for their conduct. Both these research forms use scientific methods in various
stages of the research process. The scientific method refers to a systematic approach towards
observing phenomena, drawing conclusions and testing hypotheses. Scientific methods involve
systematic analysis and logical interpretation of empirical evidence to establish facts or to prove a
theory.

In basic research, first the hypothesis is tested through experimentation and observation. Then,
logical interpretations and conclusions are made about a particular phenomenon. These conclusions
lead to the formation of general laws about that phenomenon. However, applied research involves
developing alternatives to a particular problem and finding the best alternative among them.

The video below explains what research is about.

Lesson 1.2-2 DEFINITION AND OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH

Research involves a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or a problem using
scientific methods. It is a well-structured systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control
the observed phenomenon. There are various definitions of research. They include the following:

 ‘The systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish
facts and reach new conclusions.’ (OED 2011)
 ‘The systematic gathering and interpretation of information about individuals or organisations
using the statistical and analytical methods and techniques of the applied sciences to gain
insight or support decision making.’ (Definition of market research, including social and
opinion research, ESOMAR 2013)
 ‘a systematic process to solve real-world problems.’ (Gray 2009)
 ‘systematic investigation to find things out. It is the process by which we produce evidence or
knowledge.’ (McGivern 2006)

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  ‘Systematic study and investigation.’ (Robson 2011)
 ‘The systematic collection and interpretation of information with a clear purpose, to find
things out.’ (Saunders et al. 2012)
 ‘An organised, systematic, critical, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem,
undertaken with the objective of finding answers or solutions thereto.’ (Sekaran and Bougie
2010)

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. Research follows a systematic approach. Rules and procedures are an integral part of research
that set the objective of a research process. Researchers need to practice ethics and code of
conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions. 
2. Research is based on logical reasoning. 
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time, actual observations in the natural
settings. 
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all the data collected from research so that there are no
anomalies associated with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. More research opportunity can be
generated from existing research.
6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the important character of research, the information that is obtained while
conducting the research should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, research
conducted in a controlled environment like a laboratory. Here accuracy is measured of
instruments used, calibrations, and the final result of the experiment. 

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of
research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The

possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

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 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as
well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

The following video shows the definitions and descriptions of research

Lesson 2.1-3 Introduction to research process

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The process of planning and conducting a research study involves using the scientific method to
address a specific question. During this process, the researcher moves from a general idea to actual
data collection and interpretation of the results. There are different models of the stages in the
research process. In this lesson, we focus on the simplified stage process. The model identifies the
principle activities involved in undertaking research project. The following are the details of the
steps involved in conducting research.

1. Identifying and Defining the Problem/Opportunity

The first step in the research process is to find a research idea. This task typically involves two parts:

 Selecting a general topic area (such as human development, perception, social interaction,
and so on).
 Reviewing the literature in that area to identify the relevant variables and find an unanswered
question.

It is important to define the problem in a precise manner. A well-defined problem gives the
researcher a proper direction for carrying out investigation. It also helps in utilizing the resources
provided for the research effectively. A researcher can focus his efforts on collecting relevant
information, if the problem is defined properly.

2. Plan the research design

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project. It
details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve research
problems. The process of research design start once the problem identification and definition stage is
complete. Planning the research design is a crucial step in the research design process. A research
design is the actual framework of a research that provides specific features about the process to be
followed in undertaking the research. The research designed is based on the objectives formulated
during the problem identification and definition phases of the research. It includes all the details
concerning the research such as;

 sources of information for the study,

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  sampling processes
 technics and appropriate measurement techniques.
 budget and time allocation for the study

3. Selecting a research method

A research design method is selected based on the objectives of the study, the costs involved in
conducting the research, the availability of the data and finally the importance and urgency of the
decision. There are four basic methods of conducting a research study—secondary data studies,
surveys, experiments and observation. There are several research designs for a research to select
from and researcher are expected to exercise caution in the choice of research design. There are
numerous alternative research designs that can satisfy research objectives, but the key is to create a
design that boosts the value of the information obtained, whilst optimising the costs of obtaining it.
The appropriateness of a particular method for the study must also be judged on the its ability to
deliver the envisaged research results.

4. Selecting a sampling procedure

Once the researcher selects a research method that is most appropriate for the research, the next steps
to develop a sampling procedure. A sample is a group representing a target population. Sampling is a
method of studying a few selected items as opposed to the entire population, to draw conclusions
regarding the whole population. Therefore, the design of the sampling process starts by defining the
population of the study. A properly defined sample would bear the same characteristics as the study
population.

5. Data collection

Having prepared a suitable sample, the researcher collects the data from the units in this sample,
from which inferences and conclusions about the study problem can be drawn. Just are there are
several research techniques, several data collection methods also exist. Based on the research design,
a researcher may collect data through interviews, survey questionnaires, nominal/focus group
discussions or through observations.

6. Data evaluation/analysis

 Once the data have been collected, the next important phase in the research process is evaluating the
data. The most important aspect of data evaluation is to convert the data collected into a format
which will facilitate the drawing conclusions. The reason for analysing the data is to obtain research
results and to prepare the research report. Several mathematical and statistical models are used to
evaluate the data. Evaluation of data normally starts with editing and coding of the data. The way
you analyse the information you collected largely depends upon two things: the type of information
(descriptive, quantitative, qualitative or attitudinal); and the way you want to communicate your
findings to your readers.

7. Data evaluation/analysis

Writing the report is the last and, for many, the most difficult step of the research process. The report
informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions you have
drawn from your findings. The report should be written in an academic style and be divided into
different chapters and/or sections based upon the main themes of your study.

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The video below explains a seven-step research process.

Lesson 2.2 Research explained further

Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic.

 In the well-known nursery rhyme

 Twinkle Little Star
 How I Wonder What You Are

the use of the words how and what essentially summarizes what research is.  It is an investigation of
finding solutions to scientific and social problems through objective and systematic analysis.  It is a
search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths.  Here knowledge means information
about matters.  The information might be collected from different sources like experience, human
beings, books, journals, nature, etc.

A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge.  Only through research is it
possible to make progress in a field.  Research is indeed civilization and determines the economic,
social and political development of a nation.  The results of scientific research very often force a
change in the philosophical view of problems which extend far beyond the restricted domain of
science itself.

Research is not confined to science and technology only.  There are vast areas of research in other
disciplines such as languages, literature, history and sociology.  Whatever might be the subject,
research has to be an active, diligent and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret
or revise facts, events, behaviours and theories.  Applying the outcome of research for the refinement
of knowledge in other subjects, or in enhancing the quality of human life also becomes a kind of
research and development.

Research is done with the help of

 study,
 experiment,
 observation,
 analysis,
 comparison and

Research is in fact ubiquitous.  For example,

 we know that cigarette smoking is injurious to health;

 heroine is addictive;
 cow dung is a useful source of biogas;
 malaria is due to the virus protozoan plasmodium;
 AIDS (Acquired Immuno  Deficiency  Syndrome) is  due  to  the  virus  HIV  (Human 
Immuno  Deficiency  Virus).

How did we know all these? We became aware of all this information only through research.  More
precisely, it seeks predictions of events, explanations, relationships and theories for them. As stated

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by Gerald Milburn Scientific research is a chaotic business, stumbling along amidst red herrings,
errors and truly, creative insights.  Great scientific breakthroughs are rarely the work of a single
researchers plodding slowly by inexorably towards some final goal.

The crucial idea behind the breakthrough may surface a number of times, in different places, only to
sink again  beneath  the  babble  of  an  endless  scientific  discourse.

Lesson 3.1 Tips on setting up objectives

The rime objectives of research are

(1)  to discover new facts

(2)  to verify and test important facts

(3)  to analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship

(4)  to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and non
scientific problems

(5)  to find solutions to scientific, non scientific and social problems and

(6)  to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday  life.

What makes people do research?

This  is  a  fundamentally  important  question.  No  person  would  like  to  do  research  unless
there  are  some  motivating  factors.  Some  of  the  motivations  are  the  following:

(1)  to  get  a  research  degree along  with  its  benefits  like better  employment,  promotion, 
increment  in  salary,  etc.

(2)  to  get  a  research  degree  and  then  to  get  a  teaching  position  in  a  college  or  university or 
become  a  scientist  in  a  research  institution

(3)  to  get  a  research  position  in  countries  like  U.S.A.,  Canada,  Germany,  England,  Japan,

Australia,  etc.  and  settle  there

(4)  to  solve  the  unsolved  and  challenging  problems

(5)  to  get  joy  of  doing  some  creative  work

(6)  to  acquire  respectability

(7)  to  get  recognition

(8)  curiosity  to  find  out  the  unknown  facts  of  an  event

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(9)  curiosity  to  find  new  things

(10)  to  serve  the  society  by  solving  social  problems.

Some  students  undertake  research  without  any  aim  possibly  because  of  not  being  able  to
think  of  anything  else  to  do.  Such  students  can  also  become  good  researchers  by  motivating
themselves  toward  a  respectable  goal.  Even  if  you  work  in  a  company  or  run  a  company,  a 
mind  inclined  towards  research would  do  better  than  a  mind  not  trained  for  it  and  it  was 
like  the  story  of  the  hare  and  the tortoise.  If  you  have  a  mind  trained  for  research,  you  will 
be  the  tortoise  –  the  climb  would be  slow  and  steady,  but  eventually  you  would  win  the 
race.

Importance   of   research

Research  is  important  both  in  scientific  and  non-scientific  fields.  In  our  life  new  problems,
events,  phenomena  and  processes  occur  every  day.  Practically,  implementable  solutions  and
suggestions  are  required  for  tackling  new  problems  that  arise.  Scientists  have  to  undertake
research  on  them  and  find  their  causes,  solutions,  explanations  and  applications.  Precisely,
research  assists  us  to  understand  nature  and  natural  phenomena.

Some  important  avenues  of  research  are:

(1)  A  research  problem  refers  to  a  difficulty  which  a  researcher  or  a  scientific  community or 
an  industry  or  a  government  organization  or  a  society  experiences.  It  may  be  a theoretical 
or  a  practical  situation.  It  calls  for  a  thorough  understanding  and  possible solution.

(2)  Research  on  existing  theories  and  concepts  help  us  identify  the  range  and  applications of 
them.

(3)  It  is  the  fountain  of  knowledge  and  provide  guidelines  for  solving  problems.

(4)  Research  provides  basis  for  many  government  policies.  For  example,  research  on  the
needs  and  desires  of  the  people  and  on  the  availability  of  revenues  to  meet  the  needs helps 
a  government  to  prepare  a  budget.

(5)  It  is  important  in  industry  and  business  for  higher  gain  and  productivity  and  to  improve 
the  quality  of  products.

(6)  Mathematical  and  logical  research  on  business  and  industry  optimizes  the  problems in 
them.

(7)  It  leads  to  the  identification  and  characterization  of  new  materials,  new  living  things,
new  stars,  etc.

(8)  Only  through  research  inventions  can  be  made;  for  example,  new  and  novel  phenomena
and  processes  such  as  superconductivity  and  cloning  have  been  discovered  only  through
research.

(9)  Social  research  helps  find  answers  to  social  problems.  They  explain  social  phenomena
and  seek  solution  to  social  problems.

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(10)  Research  leads  to  a  new  style  of  life  and  makes  it  delightful  and  glorious. Emphasizing 
the  importance  of  research  Louis  Pasteur  said:  I  beseech  you  to  take  interest in  these  sacred 
domains  called  laboratories.  Ask  that  there  be  more  and  that  they  be  adorned for  these  are 
the  temples  of  the  future,  wealth  and  well-being.  It  is  here  that  humanity  will learn  to  read 
progress  and  individual  harmony  in  the  works  of  nature,  while  humanity’s  own works  are  all 
too  often  those  of  barbarism,  fanaticism  and  destruction. (Louis  Paster  –article  by  S. 
Mahanti,  Dream  2047,  p.29–34  (May  2003)).

Lesson 4.1 What is the difference between

methods and methodology
Research methods

 Research methods

are  the  various  procedures,  schemes  and  algorithms  used  in  All  the  methods  used  by 
a  researcher  during  a  research  study  are  termed  as  research  methods.  They  are 
essentially  planned,  scientific  and  value-neutral.  They  include  theoretical procedures, 
experimental  studies,  numerical  schemes,  statistical  approaches,  etc.

 Research methods help  us  collect  samples,  data  and  find  a  solution  to  a    Particularly, 
scientific  research  methods  call  for  explanations  based  on  collected  facts, 
measurements  and observations  and  not  on  reasoning  alone.  They  accept  only  those 
explanations  which  can  be verified  by  experiments.

Research methodology

 Research methodology is  a  systematic  way  to  solve  a  It  is  a  science  of studying  how 
research  is  to  be  carried  out.  Essentially,  the  procedures  by  which  researchers go 
about  their  work  of  describing,  explaining  and  predicting  phenomena  are  called 
research methodology.  It  is  also  defined  as  the  study  of  methods  by  which  knowledge 
is  gained.  Its aim  is  to  give  the  work  plan  of  research.

Importance   of   Research   Methodology   in   Research   Study

 It is  necessary  for  a  researcher  to  design  a  methodology  for  the  problem    One should 
note  that  even  if  the  method  considered  in  two  problems  are  same  the  methodology
may  be  different.  It  is  important  for  the  researcher  to  know  not  only  the  research 
methods necessary  for  the  research  under  taken  but  also  the  methodology.  For 
example,  a  researcher not  only  needs  to  know  how  to  calculate  mean,  variance  and 
distribution  function  for  a  set of  data,  how  to  find  a  solution  of  a  physical  system 
described  by  mathematical  model,  how to  determine  the  roots  of  algebraic  equations 
and  how  to  apply  a  particular  method  but  also need  to  know

(i)  which  is  a  suitable  method  for  the  chosen  problem?,

(ii)  what  is  the  order  of  accuracy  of  the  result  of  a  method?,

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(iii)  what  is  the  efficiency  of  the  method?

and  so  on.  Consideration  of  these  aspects  constitute  a  research  methodology.

More  precisely,  research  methods  help  us  get  a  solution  to  a  problem.  On  the  other  hand,
research  methodology  is  concerned  with  the  explanation  of  the  following:

(1)  Why  is  a  particular  research  study  undertaken?

(2)  How  did  one  formulate  a  research  problem?

(3)  What  types  of  data  were  collected?

(4)  What  particular  method  has  been  used?

(5)  Why  was  a  particular  technique  of  analysis  of  data  used?

The  study  of  research  methods  gives  training  to  apply  them  to  a  problem.  The  study  of
research  methodology  provides  us  the  necessary  training  in  choosing  methods,  materials,
scientific  tools  and  training  in  techniques  relevant  for  the  problem  chosen.

Lesson 4.1 Introduction-2

Research is broadly classified into two main classes:

1. Fundamental or basic research

2. Applied research

Lesson 4.2 Basic research

Basic  research  is  an  investigation  on  basic  principles  and  reasons  for  occurrence  of  a
particular  event  or  process  or  phenomenon.  It  is  also  called  theoretical  research.  Study  or
investigation  of  some  natural  phenomenon  or  relating  to  pure  science  are  termed  as  basic
research.  Basic  researches  some  times  may  not  lead  to  immediate  use  or  application.  It  is
not  concerned  with  solving  any  practical  problems  of  immediate  interest. 

But it is original or basic in character.  It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and
facilitates extraction of scientific and logical explanation and conclusion  on  it. It  helps  build  new
frontiers  of  knowledge.  The  outcomes  of  basic  research  form  the  basis  for  many  applied
research.  Researchers  working  on  applied  research  have  to  make  use  of  the  outcomes  of
basic  research  and  explore  the  utility  of  them.

Research  on  improving  a  theory  or  a  method  is  also  referred  as  fundamental  research. For 
example,  suppose  a  theory  is  applicable  to  a  system  provided  the  system  satisfies  certain
specific  conditions.  Modifying the theory  to  apply  it  to  a  general  situation  is  a  basic  research.

Attempts  to  find  answers  to  the  following  questions  actually  form  basic  research.

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  Why are  materials  like  that?
 What are  they?
 How does  a  crystal  melt?
 Why is  sound  produced  when  water  is  heated?
 Why do  we  feel  difficult  when  walking  on  seashore?
 Why are  birds  arrange  them  in  ‘>’  shape  when  flying  in  a  group?

Fundamental  research  leads  to  a  new  theory  or  a  new  property  of  matter  or  even  the 
existence of  a  new  matter,  the  knowledge  of  which  has  not  been  known  or  reported  earlier. 
For example,  fundamental  research  on

(1)  astronomy  may  leads  to  identification  of  new  planets  or  stars  in  our  galaxy,

(2)  elementary  particles  results  in  identification  of  new  particles,

(3)  complex  functions  may  leads  to  new  patterns  or  new  properties  associated  with them,

(4)  differential  equations  results  in  new  types  of  solutions  or  new  properties  of  solutions not 
known  so  far,

(5)  chemical  reactions  leads  to  development  of  new  compounds,  new  properties  of 
chemicals,  mechanism  of  chemicals  reactions,  etc.,

(6)  medicinal  chemistry  leads  to  an  understanding  of  physiological  action  of  various 
chemicals  and  drugs,

(7)  structure,  contents  and  functioning  of  various  parts  of  human  body  helps  us  identify the 
basis  for  certain  diseases.

Lesson 4.3 Applied research

In  an  applied  research  one  solves  certain  problems  employing  well  known  and  accepted
theories  and  principles.  Most  of  the  experimental  research,  case  studies  and  interdisciplinary
research  are  essentially  applied  research.  Applied  research  is  helpful  for  basic  research.  A
research,  the  outcome  of  which  has  immediate  application  is  also  termed  as  applied  research.
Such  a  research  is  of  practical  use  to  current  activity. For  example,  research  on  social
problems  have  immediate  use. Applied  research  is  concerned  with  actual  life  research  such as 
research  on  increasing  efficiency  of  a  machine,  increasing  gain  factor  of  production  of  a
material,  pollution  control,  preparing  vaccination  for  a  disease,  etc.  Obviously,  they  have
immediate  potential  applications. Some  of  the  differences  between  basic  and  applied  research 
are  summarized  in  Table 1. Thus,  the  central  aim  of  applied  research  is  to  find  a  solution 
for  a  practical  problem  which warrants  solution  for  immediate  use,  whereas  basic  research  is 
directed  towards  finding information  that  has  broad  base  of  applications  and  thus  add  new 
information  to  the  already existing  scientific  knowledge.

TABLE 1:  Differences  between  basic  and  applied  researches.

Basic research Applied research

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 Studies  individual  or  specific  cases  without
the objective to generalize
Seeks generalization

Aims  at  any  variable  which  makes  the

desired  difference
Aims  at  basic  processes

Attempts to explain why things happen

Tries to say how things can be changed

Tries to get all the facts

Tries to correct the facts which are problematic

Reports in technical language of the topic Reports in common language

Lesson 4.4 Normal and revolutionary research

Basic  and  applied  researches  are  generally  of  two  kinds:  normal  research  and  revolutionary 
research.  In  any  particular  field,  normal  research  is  performed  in  accordance  with  a  set of 
rules,  concepts  and  procedures  called  a  paradigm,  which  is  well  accepted  by  the  scientists
working  in  that  field.  Normal  research  is  something  like  puzzle-solving:  interesting,  even
beautiful,  solutions  are  found  but  the  rules  are  remain  same.  In  this  normal  research 
sometimes  unexpected  novel  results  and  discoveries  are  realized  which  are  inconsistent  with 
the existing  paradigm.  Among  the  scientist,  a  tense  situation  then  ensues,  which  increases  in
intensity  until  a  scientific  revolution  is  reached.  This  is  marked  by  a  paradigm  shift  and  a
new  paradigm  emerges  under  which  normal  scientific  activity  can  be  resumed.

Lesson 4.5 Qualitative and quantitative

research
The  basic  and  applied  researches  can  be  quantitative  or  qualitative  or  even  both.  Quantitative
research is  based  on  the  measurement  of  quantity  or  amount.  Here  a  process  is expressed  or 
described  in  terms  of  one  or  more  quantities.  The  result  of  this  research  is essentially  a 
number  or  a  set  of  numbers.

Some  of  the  characteristics  of  qualitative  research/method  are:

 It is  numerical,  non-descriptive,  applies  statistics  or  mathematics  and  uses  numbers.
 It is  an  iterative  process  whereby  evidence  is  evaluated.
 The results  are  often  presented  in  tables  and  graphs.
 It is  conclusive.
 It investigates  the  what ,  where  and  when  of  decision  making.

Statistics  is  the  most  widely  used  branch  of  mathematics  in  quantitative  research.  It  finds
applications  not  only  in  physical  sciences  but  also  in  economics,  social  sciences  and  biology.

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Quantitative  research  using  statistical  methods  often  begins  with  the  collection  of  data based 
on  a  theory  or  hypothesis  or  experiment  followed  by  the  application  of  descriptive  or
inferential  statistical  methods.

Qualitative  research  is  concerned  with  qualitative  phenomenon  involving  quality.  Some of  the 
characteristics  of  qualitative  research/method  are:

 It is  non-numerical,  descriptive,  applies  reasoning  and  uses  words.

 Its aim  is  to  get  the  meaning,  feeling  and  describe  the  situation.
 Qualitative data  cannot  be  graphed.
 It is  exploratory.
 It investigates  the  why  and  how  of  decision  making.

We  measure  and  weigh  things  in  the  study  of  substance  or  structure.  Can  we  measure  or
weigh  patterns?  We  cannot  measure  or  weigh  patterns.  But  to  study  patterns  we  must map  a 
configuration  of  relationships.  That  is,  structures  involve  quantities  whereas  patterns involve 
qualities. If  one  wishes  to  investigate  why  certain  data  are  random  then  it  is  a qualitative 
research.  If  the  aim  is  to  study  how  random  the  data  is,  what  is  the  mean, variance  and 
distribution  function  then  it  becomes  quantitative.  Explaining  how  digestion of  food  takes 
place  in  our  body  is  a  qualitative  description.  It  does  not  involve  any  numbers or  data  and 
quantities.

The  detection  of  a  particular  compound  is  a  qualitative  analysis.  This  can  be  done  by
carrying  out  physical  or  chemical  tests. Determination  of  exact  amount  of  a  particular
compound  present  in  a  volume  is  essentially  quantitative  analysis.  This  can  be  done  by
volumetric,  gravimetric  and  colorimetric  methods  or  instrumental  methods.  Experimental and 
simulation  studies  are  generally  quantitative  research. In  fact,  qualitative  methods  can  be  used 
to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  numbers obtained  by  quantitative  methods.

Other types of research

Other  types  of  research  include  action  research  (fact  findings  to  improve  the  quality  of
action  in  the  social  world),  explanatory  research  (searching  explanations  for  events  and 
phenomena,  for  example  finding  answer  to  the  question  why  are  the  things  like  what  they 
are?), exploratory  research  (getting  more  information  on  a  topic)  and  comparative  research 
(obtaining  similarities  and  differences  between  events,  methods,  techniques,  etc.).

Exercise 4.1-2
Assignment:

1. List out  at  least  10  theoretical  and  applied  methods  which  you  have  learned  and  write 
their  features  in  two  or  three 

2. Write at  least  20  questions  in  your  subject  the  investigation  of  which  forms  basic research. 
Then  point  out  how  many  of  them  have  already  been  solved  and  how  many were  found  in 

14
3. Distinguish between  theory  and Write a  note  on  importance  of  theory  in  basic  and  applied 

4. Bring out  the  importance  of  inter-disciplinary 

Lesson 5.1 Introduction-2

Whenever  a  scientific  problem  is  to  be  solved  there  are  several  important  steps  to  follow.
The  problem  must  be  stated  clearly,  including  any  simplifying  assumptions.  Then  develop a 
mathematical  statement  of  the  problem.  This  process  may  involve  use  of  one  or  more
mathematical  procedures.  Frequently,  more  advanced  text  books  or  review  articles  will  be
needed  to  learn  about  the  techniques  and  procedures.  Next,  the  results  have  to  be  interpreted
to  arrive  at  a  decision.  This  will  require  experience  and  an  understanding  of  the  situation in 
which  the  problem  is  embedded.

A  general  set  of  sequential  components  of  research  is the  following:

1. Selection of  a  research  topic

2. Definition of  a  research  problem
3. Literature survey  and  reference  collection
4. Assessment of  current  status  of  the  topic  chosen
5. Formulation of  hypotheses
6. Research design
7. Actual investigation
8. Data analysis
9. Interpretation of  result
10. Report

In  the  following  sections  the  above  mentioned  various  stages  of  research  are  discussed  in
detail.

Lesson 5.2 Selection of a research topic and

problem
The  starting  point  of  a  research  is  the  selection  of  a  research  topic  and  problem.  History
teaches  the  continuity  of  the  development  and  progress  of  science.  The  point  is  that  every
age  has  its  own  problems,  numerous  in  number,  which  the  following  age  either  solves  or
casts  aside  as  profitless  and  replaces  by  new  one.  If we could obtain an idea of the probable
development of scientific knowledge in the  immediate  future,  we  must  let  the  unsettled
questions  pass  before  our  minds  and  look  over  the  problems  which  the  science  of  today  sets
and  whose  solution  we  expect  from  the   near  future.  The  deep  significance  of  certain
problems  for  the  advancement  of  science  and  society  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in
choosing  a  problem  of  research.

There  are  many  ways  to  do  research  as  there  are  scientists.  The  choice  of  a  thesis  research
area  has  always  been  a  very  subjective  process.  Identifying  a  suitable  topic  for work  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  parts  of  a  research.  Before  choosing  a  research  topic  and  a problem  the 
young  researchers  should  keep  the  following  points  in  mind.

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  Topic should  be  suitable  for  research.
 The researcher  should  have  interest  in  it.
 Topic should  not  be  chosen  by  compulsion  from  some  one  else.

Topic  and  problem  can  be  fixed  in  consultation  with  the  research  supervisor.  In  our  country
often  research  supervisors  suggest  a  topic  and  state  a  problem  in  broad  view.  The  researcher
has  to  narrow  it  and  define  it  in  an  operational  form.

Identification of a research topic and problems

Some  sources  of  identification  of  a  research  topic  and  problems  are  the  following:

(1)  Theory  of  one’s  own  interest

(2)  Daily  problems

(3)  Technological  changes

(4)  Recent  trends

(5)  Unexplored  areas

(6)  Discussion  with  experts  and  research  supervisor

Suppose  one  is  interested  in  the  theory  of  nonlinear  differential  equations  or  quasicrystals or 
fullerenes.  Then  he  can  find  a  research  guide  who  is  working  in  this  field  or  interested  to
work  in  this  field  and  then  choose  a  problem  for  research. Our  daily  experiences  and  day  to 
affairs  have  rich  openings  on  various  aspects  such  as  the daunting  tasks  of  AIDS,  consumer
perception, air  pollution,  afforestation  and  deforestation,  child  labor,  problems of  aged 
citizens,  etc.

Technology  in  various  branches  of  science,  business  and  marketing  changes  rapidly.  For
example,  in  the  early  years,  computers  were  built  in  larger  size  with  vacuum  tubes.  Then
evolution  in  electronic  technology  replaced  them  by  integrated  circuits.  Recently,  scientists
have  developed  quantum  dots.  Now  the  interest  is  in  developing  efficient,  super-fast  and
miniaturized  computing  machine  made  up  of  material  whose  particle  size  of  the  order  of
nano  (10−9)  meter  or  even  smaller. Similarly,  another  fascinating  topic  namely,  thin  film has 
multiple  fields  of  applications.  Recent  research  on  fullerenes  resulted  in  many  practical
applications.

Choosing  a  topic  of  current  interest  or  recent  trends  provides  bright  and  promising 
opportunities  for  young  researchers  to  get  post-doctoral  fellowship,  position  in  leading
institutions in  our  nation  and  abroad. In  each  subject  there  are  several  topics  which  are  not 
explored  in  detail  even  though  the topic  was  considered  by  scientists  long  time  ago.  For 
example,  string  theory,  quantum  computing,  nano-particles,  quantum  cloning  and  quantum 
cryptography  and  gene  immunology are  fascinating  topics  and  are  in  preliminary  stages.

The  supervisors  and  experts  are  working  on  one  or  few  fields  over  a  long  time  and  they
are  the  specialists  in  the  field  considered  and  well  versed  with  the  development  and  current
status  of  the  field.  Therefore,  a  young  researcher  can  make  use  of  their  expertise  in  knowing

16
various  possible  problems  in  the  topic  the  solving  of  which  provide  better  opportunities  in
all  aspects.

Don’t  choose  a  topic  simply  because  it  is  fascinating.  In  choosing  a  topic  one  should take 
care  of  the  possibility  of  data  collection,  quantity  of  gain,  breadth  of  the  topic  and so  on. 
The  topic  should  not  be  too  narrow.  For  example,  the  study  of  social  status  and sexual  life 
of  married  couples  of  same  sex  (man-man  marriage  and  woman-woman  marriage) is 
interesting  and  of  social  relevance.  But  the  intricate  problem  here  is  that  we  do  not  find
enough  number  of  such  couples  to  study.  This  is  a  very  narrow  topic  at  the  same  time  we
will  not  get  enough  data  to  analyse.  On  the  other  hand,  the  changes  in  the  social  life  of
aravanis  in  recent  times  is  a  valuable  social  problem  and  one  can  collect  enough  data.

Further,  one  has  to  study  advanced  level  text  books  and  latest  research  articles  to  identify
problems.  Is  it  necessary  to  know  all  the  methods,  techniques,  concepts  in  a  research  topic
before  identifying  a  problem  for  investigation?  This  is  not  necessary.  After  learning  some
fundamental  concepts,  recent  developments  and  current  trends  of  a  topic,  one  can  identify a 
problem  for  research.  Then  he  can  learn  the  tools  necessary  to  solve  it

Lesson 5.3 Definition and formulation of the

research problem
After  identifying  a  problem,  in  order  to  solve  it,  it  has  to  be  defined  and  formulated
properly.  For  this  purpose,  one  can  execute  the  following.

 State the  problem  in  questionnaire  form  or  in  an  equivalent  form
 Specify the  problem  in  detail  and  in  precise  terms
 List the  assumptions  made
 Remove the  ambiguities,  if  any,  in  the  statement  of  the  problem
 Examine the  feasibility  of  a  particular  solution

Defining  the  problem  is  more  important  than  its  solution.  It  is  a  crucial  part  of  the  research
study  and  should  not  be  defined  in  hurry.

How do you assess whether the defined problem as a good problem?

A  problem  in  its  first  definition  may  not  be  appealing.  It  may  require  redefinition  in order 
to  make  it  a  good  problem.  That  is,  by  suitably  rewording  or  reformulating  the  chosen
problem,  it  can  be  made  to  meet  the  criteria  of  a  good  problem.  This  is  also  important  to
solve  the  problem  successfully.  To  this  end  a  researcher  can  ask  a  series  of  questions  on 
the problem.  Some  are:

(1)  Is  the  problem  really  interesting  to  him  and  to  the  scientific  community?

(2)  Is  the  problem  significant  to  the  present  status  of  the  topic?

(3)  Is  there  sufficient  supervision/guidance?

(4)  Can  the  problem  be  solved  in  the  required  time  frame?

17
(5)  Are  the  necessary  equipment,  adequate  library  and  computational  facilities,  etc.  available?

If  the  answers  to  these  questions  are  satisfactory,  then  the  researcher  can  initiate  work  on
the  chosen  problem.  In  addition,  discuss  the  problem  with  the  current  students who are
studying higher degrees than yourself and  obtain  the  scope  of  the  problem  and  other  related 
aspects.

How are these questions important and relevant to a researcher?

The  researcher  should  be  interested  on  the  problem  for  the  reasons  mentioned  above. The
problem  should  also  be  interesting  to  the  supervisor  so  that the  researcher  can  get  the 
necessary  guidance  from  him.  Otherwise  sometimes  the  researcher may  find  it  very  difficult 
to  convince  the  supervisor  on  the  importance  and  significance  of  the results  obtained.  More 
importantly,  the  problem  must  be  of  interest  to  scientific  community and  society.  If  not  then 
the  researcher  will  find  great  difficulty  to  publish  his  findings  in reputed  journals  and 
convince  the  funding  agency.

Next,  the  status  of  the  problem,  particularly  the  importance  of  finding  its  solution  should
match  with  the  current  status  of  the  field.  But,  if  the  problem  investigated  is  of  not  much
interest  to  science  and  society  then  publications  will  become  useless  to  him  in  his  research
career. A  researcher  needs  proper  guidance  and  encouragement  from  the  supervisor  regularly.
This  is  important  for  keeping  the  research  in  right  track,  to  overcome  the  difficulties  which
come  at  various  states  of  research  and  also  to  have  moral  support. 

Finally,  the  researcher  must  make  sure  that  the  necessary  experimental  setup  and  materials 
to  perform  the  actual  research  work  are  available  in  the  department  where  research work  is 
to  be  carried  out.  Without  these,  if  the  researcher  initiated  the  work  and  has  gone through 
certain  stages  of  work  or  spent  one  or  two  years  in  the  problem  then  in  order  to complete 
the  task  he  would  be  forced  to  buy  the  materials  and  instruments  from  his  personal savings.

Lesson 6.1 Introduction

After  defining  a  problem,  the  researcher  has  to  do  literature  survey  connected  with  the
problem.  Literature  survey  is  a  collection  of  research  publications,  books  and  other 
documents related  to  the  defined  problem.  It  is  very  essential  to  know  whether  the  defined 
problem  has already  been  solved,  status  of  the  problem,  techniques  that  are  useful  to 
investigate  the problem  and  other  related  details.

One  can  survey

(1)  the  journals  which  publish  abstracts  of  papers  published  in  various  journals,

(2)  review  articles  related  to  the  topic  chosen,

(3)  journals  which  publish  research  articles,

18
(4)  advanced  level  books  on  the  chosen  topic,

(5)  proceedings  of  conferences,  workshops,  etc.,

(6)  reprint/preprint  collections  available  with  the  supervisor  and  nearby  experts  working on 
the  topic  chosen  and

(7)  Internet.

No  research  shall  be  complete  unless  we  make  use  of  the  knowledge  available  in  books,
journals  and  internet.  Review  of  the  literature  in  the  area  of  research  is  a  preliminary  step
before  attempting  to  plan  the  study.

Literature  survey  helps  us

(1)  sharpen  the  problem,  reformulate  it  or  even  leads  to  defining  other  closely  related
problems,

(2)  get  proper  understanding  of  the  problem  chosen,

(3)  acquire  proper  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge  to  investigate  the  problem,

(4)  show  how  the  problem  under  study  relates  to  the  previous  research  studies  and

(5)  know  whether  the  proposed  problem  had  already  been  solved.

Through  survey  one  can  collect  relevant  information  about  the  problem.  Clarity  of  ideas can 
be  acquired  through  study  of  literature. Apart  from  literature  directly  connected  with  the 
problem,  the  literature  that  is  connected with  similar  problems  is  also  useful. It  helps 
formulate  the  problem  in  a  clear-cut  way. A  review  on  past  work  helps  us  know  the 
outcome  of  those  investigations  where  similar problems  were  solved.  It  can  help  us  design 
methodology  for  the  present  work.  We can also explore the vital links  with  the  various  trends 
and  phases  in  the  chosen  topic  and  familiarize with  characteristic  precepts,  concepts  and 
interpretations.  Further, it can help us formulate a satisfactory structure of the research proposal.

Because a Ph.D.  thesis or MSc or B. Sc dissertation is a study in depth  aiming  contribution to 
knowledge,  a  careful  check  should  be  made  to  ensure  that  the  proposed  study  has  not
previously  been  performed  and  reported.  The  earlier  studies  which  are  relevant  to  the 
problem  chosen  should  be  carefully  studied.  Ignorance  of  prior  studies  may  lead  to  a 
researcher duplicating  a  work  already  carried  out  by  another  researcher.  A  good  library  will 
be  of  great help  to  a  researcher  at  this  stage.  One  can  visit  nearby  research  institutions  and 
avail  the library  facility.

Lesson 6.2 The internet as a medium of

research
19
From  past  one  decade  or  so  the  internet  became  an  important  source  of  knowledge  and 
effective  medium  for  research.  For researchers, it is providing a  range  of  new  opportunities  for
collecting  information,  networking,  conducting  research,  collecting  data  and  disseminating
research  results.

Electronic mail, e-journal, online submission of articles to journals, online focus groups, online 
video  conferencing  and  online  questionary  are  some  of  the  latest  tools  opened-up by  the 
internet.  We note that  thousands  of  books  and  other  print  publications  have  been made 
available  online  that  would  be  extremely  difficult  to  locate  otherwise,  including  out-of-print 
books,  and  classic  literature  and  textbooks  that  would  be  much  less  accessible  in their 
printed  form.

Some  of  the  scientific  research  information  available  on  the  internet  are:

 Details about  various  scientific  and  non scientific  topics.

 Titles and  other  relevant  information  of  article  published  in  various  journals,  possibly,
from  past  one  decade  or  so  (full  article  will  not  be  available).
 Preprint of  papers  submitted  by  researchers  in  certain  websites.
 Information about  scientific  meetings  to  be  held.
 Contact details  for  other  researchers.
 Databases of  reference  material.
 Places where  one  can  discuss  topics  and  ask  for  help.

In  general,  academic  research  that  has  been  commercially  published  is  not  freely  available
on  the  internet.

Some  of  the  features  of  conducting  research  through  internet  are:

 Short time  for  collecting  and  recording  data.

 Data unknown  to  us  can  be  identified  and  downloaded.
 The possibility  of  conducting  interviews  and  focus  groups  by  e-mail,  which results  in
enormous  saving  in  costs  and  time.
 New communities  to  act  as  the  object  of  social  scientific  enquiry.

While  the  internet  contains  a  virtually-unlimited  wealth  of  information  not  found  in 
traditional  resources,  this  abundance  also  may  hinder  academic  research.  The  following  are 
some of  the  new  challenges  for  the  researcher:

 Problems of  sampling.

 Reliability and  accuracy  of  the  obtained  data  information.
 The ethics  of  conducting  research  into  online  communities.
 Physical access  and  skills  required  to  use  the  technologies  involved.
 The changed  chronology  of  interaction  resulting  from  asynchronous  communication.

A  major  way  to  find  whether  an  online  source  is  credible  is  to  determine  how  popular  and
authoritative  the  source  is.  If  the  site  has  a  well-respected  offline  counterpart  such  as  the
New  York  Times  the  site  will  be  as  credible  as  the  original.  For  websites  and  authors 
which have  little  popularity,  one  must  consider  the  credentials  of  the  source–if  those  are 
available and  valid.  Even  though  a  website  may  be  written  in  a  professional  or  academic 

20
manner, the  lack  of  central  body  to  determine  its  credibility  may  be  a  prohibitive  factor  for 
serious research.

Lesson 6.3 Reference collection

As  soon  as  the  survey  of  available  source  begins,  the  preparation  and  collection  of 
references  preferably  with  annotations  should  be  undertaken.  Keeping  records  systematically
during  research  helps  a  researcher  achieve  various  objectives.  It  preserves  data  for  future use. 
The  researcher  may  stumble  upon  something  that  may  not  be  of  immediate  use,  but would 
help  him  later.  Details  have  to  be  kept  in  files.

The  important  source  of  reference  collection  is  the  journal  called  Current  Contents.  This
comes  once  in  a  week.  It  is  available  in  hard  copy  and  also  in  floppy  diskette.  Almost  all 
the universities  and  research  institutions  buy  this  document.  It  contains  the  table  of  content 
of research  journals  and  magazines  in  various  subjects.  It  provides  title  of  articles,  names  of
the  authors,  date  of  publication,  volume  number,  starting  page  number  of  the  articles  and
address  of  the  author  from  whom  one  can  get  the  reprint  of  the  article.  If  the  title  of  the
article  indicates  that  the  paper  is  in  the  topic  of  one’s  interest  then  he  can  take  a  copy  of
the  article  if  the  journal  is  available  in  the  local  library.

One  can  obtain  a  research  article  on  paying  the  charge  fixed  by  the  INFLIBNET  provided
the  particular  journal  is  available  in  it.  Articles  can  also  be  purchased  from  the  publishers
on  payment.  Alternatively,  reprint  of  the  article  can  be  had  from  the  author  by  sending  a
letter/card/e-mail  to  the  author. The  references  from  current  contents  or  from  journals  can  be 
noted  on  a  separate  card or  sheet  with  the  names  of  authors  and  the  title  of  the  paper/book, 
etc.  For  a  research paper,  its  title,  journal  name,  volume  number,  starting  and  ending  pages 
of  it  and  year  of publication  should  be  noted.  For  a  book,  publisher’s  name,  place  of 
publication  and  year  of publication  must  be  written  down. The  references can  be  classified.
For  example,  sources  dealing  with  theory,  dealing  with  experimental techniques,  concerned 
with  numerical  methods,  etc.  can  be  grouped  separately.  The  copies of  the  research  articles 
can  also  be  classified  and  bounded.  Cross  references  (that  is  research articles  or  books 
referred  or  cited  in  a  research  report)  should  also  be  collected  and  classified. These  also 
provide  useful  information.

Reference  collection  and  keeping  the  collected  materials  have  to  be  systematic.  Unless they 
are  organized  with  utmost  care  and  discipline,  one  would  end  up  in  chaos.  One  may not  be 
able  to  retrieve  the  required  research  article  or  any  other  collected  material  when  it needed. 
Materials  can  be  classified  as  facts,  ideas,  views  and  opinions,  expert  comments, new 
breakthroughs,  quotes,  journal  papers,  review  articles,  etc.  It  is  better  to  have  multiple copies 
of  important  materials.  At  various  stages  of  research  one  may  refer  to  numerous journal 
articles,  books  and  web  sites.  Obviously,  all  of  them  are  not  going  to  find  a  place  in the 
thesis  or  research  reports.  Based  on  the  present  work  and  future  plan  one  has  to  select the 
relevant  materials  from  the  available  collection.

Lesson 6.4 Current research status

Assessing the current status

21
Generally,  it  is  not  difficult  to  know  the  current  status  of  research  work  in  a  specific  topic.
The  current  status  of  the  chosen  topic  can  be  identified  by  reading  the  relevant  journals  and
the  recent  papers,  discussions  in  conferences,  seminars  and  workshops.  One  can  perform
inquiries  at  several  important  places  known  for  research  on  proposed  topic. A  study  of  the 
current  literature  in  the  chosen  topic  explores  the  current  status  of  it. More  importantly, 
review  articles  point  out  not  only  to  the  basic  aspects  and  features  of  the topic  concerned 
but  also  give  a  brief  account  of  its  present  status.  For  this  purpose,  one can  survey  the 
journals, Review  Letters,  Reviews, Current journals, seminars  and  conferences,  etc.

Rapid  communication  and  Letter  sections  of  international  journals  publish  articles  which are 
very  important  and  fall  in  recent  trends  category.  There  are  several  areas  in  internet where 
the  papers  just  submitted  to  journals  are  placed.  One  can  download  such  articles  free of 
cost.  These  articles  indicate  the  recent  trends  in  a  particular  topic.  Some  relevant  web sites 
are  listed  below.

http://arxiv.org/

http://www.ams.org/global-preprints/

http://front.math.ucdavis.edu/math.AG/

http://www.ma.utexas.edu/mp−arc/

http://www.clifford.org/anonftp/clf-alg/

Lesson 7.1 Importance of an hypothesis

Researchers  do  not  carry  out  work  without  any  aim  or  expectation.  Research  is  not  of doing 
something  and  presenting  what  is  done.  Every  research  problem  is  undertaken  aiming at 
certain  outcomes.  That  is,  before  starting  actual  work  such  as  performing  an  experiment or 
theoretical  calculation  or  numerical  analysis,  we  expect  certain  outcomes  from  the  study. The 
expectations  form  the  hypothesis.  Hypotheses  are  scientifically  reasonable  predictions.

They  are  often  stated  in  terms  of  if-then  sentences  in  certain  logical  forms.  A  hypothesis
should  provide  what  we  expect  to  find  in  the  chosen  research  problem.  That  is,  the  expected
or  proposed  solutions  based  on  available  data  and  tentative  explanations  constitute  the
hypothesis. Hypothesizing  is  done  only  after  survey  of  relevant  literature  and  learning  the 
present status  of  the  field  of  research.  It  can  be  formulated  based  on  previous  research  and 
observation. To  formulate  a  hypothesis  the  researcher  should  acquire  enough  knowledge  in 
the topic  of  research  and  a  reasonably  deep  insight  about  the  problem.  In  formulating  a 
hypothesis  construct  operational  definitions  of  variables  in  the  research  problem.  Hypothesis
is  due  to  an  intelligent  guess  or  for  inspiration  which  is  to  be  tested  in  the  research  work
rigorously  through  appropriate  methodology.  Testing  of  hypothesis  leads  to  explanation  of the 
associated  phenomenon  or  event.

What  are  the  criteria  of  a  good  hypothesis?  An  hypothesis  should  have  conceptual  clarity
and  a  theoretical  orientation. Further,  it  should  be  testable. It  should  be  stated  in  a suitable 

22
way  so  that  it  can  be  tested  by  investigation.  A  hypothesis  made  initially  may become 
incorrect  when  the  data  obtained  are  analysed.  In  this  case  it  has  to  be  revised.  It is 
important  to  state  the  hypothesis  of  a  research  problem  in  a  research  report.  We  note that  if 
a  hypothesis  withstands  the  experiments  and  provides  the  required  facts  to  make it 
acceptable,  not  only  to  the  researchers  performing  the  experiments  but  to  others  doing other 
experiments  then  when  sufficiently  reinforced  by  continual  verification  the  hypothesis may 
become  a  theory.

Lesson 7.2 Mode of approach

Mode  of  approach  means  the  manner  in  which  research  is  to  be  carried  out.  It  should  keep
the  researcher  on  the  right  track  and  make  him  complete  the  planned  work  successfully . You
should keep in mind that  there  is  always  room  for  improvement  in  any  human  endeavour, and 
research  is  no  exception.  Do  each  and  every  job  with  maximum  care.  If  you  go  for endless 
fine-tuning,  you  will  never  finish  the  job  on  time.  You  have  to  be  pragmatic  in your 
approach  and  execution.  One  should  sharpen  the  thinking  and  focus  attention  on  the more 
important  aspects  of  the  study.  The  scientific  thinking  must  be  more  formal,  strict, empirical 
and  specific  and  more  over  goal  oriented.  Essentially,  one  must  concentrate  on an  area  of 
research  and  aim  to  perform  better  than  almost  anyone  else.  In order to make steady progress
in  research  and  to  assess  the  progress  of  the  research  work,  a  research  design is  very 
helpful.

Lesson 8.1 Introduction-2

Plan  your  work  and  work  your  plan  is  the  suggestion  of  Napolean  Hill.  For  a  scientific
research  one  has  to  prepare  a  research  design.  It  should  indicate  the  various  approaches to 
be  used  in  solving  the  research  problem,  sources  and  information  related  to  the  problem and, 
time  frame  and  the  cost  budget.  Essentially,  the  research  design  creates  the  foundation of  the 
entire  research  work.  The  design  will  help  perform  the  chosen  task  easily  and  in  a
systematic  way.  Once  the  research  design  is  completed  the  actual  work  can  be  initiated.  The
first  step  in  the  actual  work  is  to  learn  the  facts  pertaining  to  the  problem.

Particularly, theoretical  methods,  numerical  techniques,  experimental  techniques  and  other 

relevant  data and  tools  necessary  for  the  present  study  have  to  be  collected  and  learnt. It  is 
not  necessary  that  every  theory,  technique  and  information  in  the  topic  of  research is  useful 
for  a  particular  problem.  A  researcher  has  to  identify  and  select  materials  which are  useful 
to  the  present  work.  Further,  the  validity  and  utility  of  the  information  gathered should  be 
tested  before  using  them.  Scientific  research  is  based  on  certain  mathematical, numerical  and 
experimental  methods.  These  sources  have  to  be  properly  studied  and  judged before  applying 
them  to  the  problem  of  interest.

Lesson 8.2 What are possible approaches the

researcher should follow?
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Being  a  member  of  a  research  institution  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  become  a  scientist. 
Every  great  human  achievement  is  preceded  by  extended  periods  of  dedicated  and 
concentrated effort.  As  told  by  Mahatma  Gandhi  satisfaction  lies  in  the  effort  and  not  in  the 
attainment . Full  effort  is  full  victory.  A  researcher  can  exercise  the  following  aspects 
regularly  throughout  the  research  carrier.  These  will  keep  him  in  right  track  and  tightly  bind 
him  to  the research  activity.

 Discussion with  the  supervisor,  experts  and  colleagues  about  the  research  work, 
particularly,  the  problem  and  its  origin,  objectives  and  difficulties  faced  in  the 
execution of  the 
 Reading of  the  latest  research  papers,  relevant  theories  and  possible  application  to  the
present  problem  and  to  overcome  the  difficulties 
 Review of  the  work  reported  on  the  similar 
 Theoretical calculations,  setting-up  of  an  experimental  setup,  numerical  calculations,
computer  programs,  preparation  of  graphs,  tables  and  other  relevant  work  related  to
the  research  should  be  done  by  a  new  researcher  by  himself  without  assistance  from
others.
 Have a  practice  of  periodically  writing  the  work  done,  results  obtained  and  steps
followed  in  a    This  is  important  because  sometime  we  may  think  that  a  particular
aspect  will  be  a  center  piece  of  the  problem  under  investigation.  But  once  we  make 
a write-up  of  it,  this  aspect  or  part  of  it  may  turn  out  to  be  only  of  marginal 
importance. In  fact,  writing  of  the  progress  of  the  work  will  help  us  better  understand 
our  work and  forms  a  solid  basis  for  further  progress.  It  also  points  out  the  gaps  in 
our  work.
 Participation and  presentation  of  research  findings  in  national  and  international 

These  regular  practices  provide  useful  information  like  new  ideas  and  can  help  the  researcher

(1)  sharpen  and  focus  attention,

(2)  confining  to  the  formulation  and

(3)  in  the  interpretation  of  the  solution  obtained.

Independent  Research

Absolute  honesty,  patience,  stamina,  precision  and  devotion  to  the  subject  of  matter together 
with  imagination  and  analytical  ability  are  among  the  requirements  for  scientific research.
Each  and  every  bit  of  task  related  to  the  research  work  has  to  be  done  by  the  researcher. A 
young  researcher  should  not  do  the  entire  work  in  collaboration  with  others.  A  young
researcher  should  have  the  ability  to  do  all  by  himself. In  this  connection  Beasley  and Jones 
[1]  wrote:  In  reality  collaborations  are  commonplace,  often  necessary–to  get  samples, to 
make  all  the  desired  measurements  or  to  perform  a  complete  analysis.

But  such  collaborations  generally  arise  naturally  in  the  course  of  the  research  and  define 
and  limit  themselves naturally.  A  true  sense  of  camaraderie  often  develops,  and  students  do 
not  lose  that  sense of  having  made  major  contributions  on  their  own. The  researcher  is 
advised  to  perform  all  the  works  starting  from  identification  of  the problem  to  report 
24
preparation  by  himself  under  the  guidance  of  supervisor.  Particularly, collaboration  work  with 
experts  and  senior  researcher  may  be  avoided.  (However,  he  can discuss  his  problems  with 
them).

This  is  important  to  acquire

(1)  enough  knowledge,

(2)  confidence  and

(3)  training

Part of  the  dissertation  should  demonstrate  the  researcher’s  originality.  The  dissertation should 
reflect  the  efforts  of  a  single  researcher.            Keeping  this  in  mind  one  should  avoid
collaboration  as  far  as  possible  in  the  young  stage.  Eugene  Wigner,  a  Nobel  laureate said: 
One  does  not  have  the  satisfaction  which  creative  work  provides,  if  one’s  activities  are too 
closely  directed  by  others.

Doubt

A  researcher  should  provide  new  information  to  the  supervisor  and  avoid  getting  information 
from  the  supervisor. This  remarkable  growth  has  to  come  through  nothing  but  his  hard work. 
There  is  no  shortcut  to  success.  He  should  learn  and  collect  many  information  related to  his 
work. The  Nobel  Laureate Richard  Feynman  said:  I  had  no  fear  of  doubt  and  uncertainty.  I 
don’t  feel  frightened  by not  knowing  things,  by  being  lost  in  a  mysterious  universe  without 
any  purpose.  It  doesn’t frighten  me.  Doubt  is  motivation.  It  leads  to  discovery  and  the 
pleasure  of  finding  things out.

Complete  Focus

Francis  Bacon  said:  If  a  man  will  begin  with  certainties,  he  shall  end  in  doubts.  But  if he 
will  be  content  to  begin  with  doubts,  he  will  end  in  certainties. During  the  course  of 
research,  one  should  focus  the  mind  mainly  on  the  research  work. Don’t  allow  the  personal 
life  to  interfere  with  research.  Our  life  is  mixed  with  happiness, sorrows,  problems  and 
difficulties.  At  any  stage  of  life  how  much  happiness  we  had  depends on  how  much 
problems  we  faced  and  how  we  approached  each  one  of  them,  how  we  solved them  and  so 
on.  Most of the achievements have  been  made  by  scientists  only  after  struggles.

A  researcher  must  be  clear  in  his  thoughts.  He  should  know  what  he  has  to  find  out. In 
order  to  perform  the  work  successfully  the  researcher  should  acquire  proper  training  in the 
techniques  of  research.  The  training  equips  the  researcher  with  the  requirements  of  the task. 
Further,  he  should  be  clear  about  his  task  and  possess  intellectual  insight.  Then  only he  is 
able  to  find  out  the  facts  that  would  help  him  in  his  task.  Make  your  research  a  part of 
your  every  day  life. Think  about  your  research  work  in  background  mode,  ideas  will  come 
out  even  when you  are  seeing  a  movie,  traveling  to  a  place,  sight-seeing  and  shopping 

Maintaining  Ties

A  good  relationship  with  the  supervisor  is  essential  for  several  reasons.  It  will  greatly
influence  the  quality  and  progress  of  your  work.  Remember  that  maintaining  an  excellent

25
relationship  with  another  person  and  working  closely  for  a  long  period  is  not  easy.  You 
have to  maintain  a  fine  relation  with  the  supervisor  and  also  with  your  seniors  and 
colleagues throughout  your  period  of  association.  Backbiting  and  unwholesome  arguments  on 
academic matters,  research  work  and  other  matters  should  be  avoided.  The  supervisor  will 
have  a thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject  of  research,  however,  at  one  stage  you  may  feel 
that  you have  acquired  more  knowledge  than  him  in  certain  topics.  But  this  is  no  reason  to
show-off.

You  have  to  maintain  politeness  and  courtesy. Professional  etiquette  has  to  be  followed. If 
your  are  consulting  another  expert  on some  aspect  of  your  work,  it  should  be  necessarily  be 
with  the  knowledge  of  your  supervisor. You  should  also  take  the  supervisor’s  criticism  in 
the  right  spirit  and  respond  appropriately; there  should  be  no  reason  for  emotional  outbursts.

Lesson 8.3 Attributes of a scholar

Any  researcher  should  be  motivated  by  a  noble  goal.  Work  gets  the  first,  second  and

third  priority.  The  attributes  of  a  good  research  scholar  may  be  summarized  as:

 Self-confidence
 Dedication
 Concentration
 Determination
 Analytical mind
 Scientific discipline
 Global outlook
 Innovative approach
 Originality
 Intellectual curiosity
 Freedom from  the  obsessions  of  clock  and  calendar
 Flexibility
 Keen observation
 Intelligence
 Passion for  knowledge
 Questioning attitude
 Spirit of  enquiry
 Insight
 Precision and  accuracy
 Resilience to  withstand  temporary  setbacks
 Persistence
 Patience
 Social skills
 Presentation skills
 Writing skills

Lesson 9.1 Introduction

26
One  should  aim  at  doing  good  research.  What  is  good  research?  Which  universities  and
research  institutions  in  your  country  do  the  best  research?  How  do  you  distinguish  the  great
from  a  good,  a  black  hole  from  an  ordinary  hole,  a  superconductor  from  a  normal 
conductor, supernova  from  mere  stars,  poles  from  ordinary  points,  linear  differential  equations 
from nonlinear  ones?

To  distinguish  one  from  another  we  can  use  various  quantities.  Like-wise,  to  identify the 
best  from  among  the  available,  one  can  use  various  quantities  to  measure  the  quality  of
them.  For  example,  to  identify  a  best  research  the  quality  of  the  one’s  research  publications,
number  of  citations  of  his  publications,  projects  completed,  books  published,  contribution
made  to  the  science  and  society,  etc.  can  be  considered.

Research  work

(1)  published  in  reputed  international  journals,

(2)  cited  by  other  researchers  working  in  the  same  or  similar  topic  and

(3)  which  added  new  information  to  the  existing  knowledge  on  a  topic are  generally
considered  as  good .

Some  common  errors  made  in  research  are

(1)  Selective  observation

(2)  Inaccurate  observation

(3)  Over-generalization

(4)  Made-up  information

(5)  Ex  post  facto  hypothesizing

(6)  Illogical  reasoning

(7)  Ego  involvement  in  understanding

(8)  Premature  closure  of  inquiry

(9)  Mystification

Lesson 9.2 Results and conclusion

The  next  step  after  performing  the  actual  research  work  on  the  chosen  problem  is 
preparation  of  results  and  conclusion  of  the  performed  work.  Predictions,  results  and 
conclusion are  ultimate  goals  of  the  research  performed.

27
There  are  two  indispensable  rules  of  modern  research.  The  freedom  of  creative  imagination 
necessarily  subjected  to  rigorous  experimentation.  In  the  beginning  any  experimental research 
on  a  specific  subject,  imagination  should  give  wings  to  the  thought.  At  the  time of 
concluding  and  interpreting  the  facts  that  were  collected  observation,  the  imagination should 
be  dominated  and  prevailed  over  by  concrete  results  of  experiments.  We  should  analyse 
cause  and  effect.  We  should  pay  attention  to  minute  details  also.

In  fact  keenness  in observation  is  the  hallmark  of  any  scientific  research. Proper 
interpretations  of  the  results  must  be  made. Interpretation  refers  to  the  task of  drawing 
inferences  from  the  actual  research  work .  It  also  means  drawing  of  conclusion. Conclusion 
is  based  on  the  study  performed.  It  would  bring  out  relations  and  processes that  underlie  the 
findings.  The  utility  of  the  outcome  of  the  research  greatly  lie  on  proper interpretations  and 
is  the  hardest  part  of  solving  a  scientific  problem. Interpretation  of results  is  important 
because  it

(1)  links  the  present  work  to  the  previous,

(2)  leads  to  identification  of  future  problems,

(3)  opens  new  avenues  of  intellectual  adventure  and  stimulates  the  quest  for  more 
knowledge,

(4)  makes  others  understand  the  significance  of  the  research  findings  and

(5)  often  suggests  a  possible  experimental  verification.

The  basic  rule  in  preparing  results  and  conclusion  is  to  give  all  the  evidences  relevant  to
the  research  problem  and  its  solution.  A  bare  statement  of  the  findings  are  not  enough.
Their  implications  must  be  pointed  out.  Discuss  your  answers  to  the  following  questions
with  experts:

(1)  Are  the  supporting  evidences  sufficient?,  and  if  not,  What  to  do?

(2)  How  many  pieces  of  evidence  are  required?  Instead  of  producing  all,  is  it  possible  to
restrict  to  one  or  two  pieces  of  evidence?  If  so,  what  are  they?  and

(3)  Why  are  they  sufficient? and  so  on.

Such  directions  can  help  us  minimize  work  and  the  quantity  of  presentation  of the  report. 
Do  not  rely  on  a  bogus  evidence  which  would  increase  the  chances  of  errors.  The
investigator  has  to  give  suggestions.  These  should  be  practical  and  based  on  logic,  reasoning
and  fact.  The  suggestions  should  be  such  that  they  can  be  actually  implemented. The 
researcher  should  not  be  in  hurry  while  preparing  the  results  and  conclusion.  After preparing 
them  the  researcher  may  ask  the  following  questions:

(1)  Are  the  quantitative  and  qualitative  analysis  performed  adequate  for  the  conclusion
drawn?

(2)  Are  the  results  and  conclusion  general ?

28
(3)  Are  the  results  and  conclusion  valid  only  for  the  particular  situation  considered  in  the
present  work?

(4)  Is  the  conclusion  too  broad  considering  the  analysis  performed?

(5)  Is  any  evidence  which  weaken  the  conclusion  omitted?

The  results  and  conclusion  prepared  can  be  revised  based  on  the  answers  to  the  above
questions. Each  and  every  statement  made  in  the  results  and  conclusion  sections  must  be 
based on  evidence  obtained  from  theoretical  or  experimental  analysis.  Baseless  statements 
should never  be  made. While  doing  research  particularly  experiments,  one  may  land  up  with 
an  unexpected result  or  a  finding  contrary  to  the  underlying  theory.  Such  an  observation 
should  not  be ignored  blindly.  It  may  be  pursued  to  some  extent  to  check  whether  it  yields 
some  useful result.

As  noted  by  Warrier  [2001], the  history  of  science  records  such  fortuitous  breaks  that  led to 
many  classic  discoveries. Never  yield  to  the  temptation  of  fabrication  of  results  and 
interpretation.  Plagiarism  in the  form  of  copying  data  or  findings  from  others’  report  without 
acknowledging  the  source will  make  you  in  trouble.  Don’t  attempt  to  report  the  already 
reported  findings  of  others as  yours.  Citing  the  original  sources  actually  enhances  the 
credibility  of  your  work. One  should  note  that  the  observations,  claims  and  the  conclusions 
drawn  in  a  research report  are  subjected  to  a  criticism  by  the  experts  in  the  concerned  field. 
Therefore,  the researchers  have  to  think  twice  before  presenting  the  outcomes  of  the  research 
in  a  journal and  in  a  scientific  meeting.

Exercise 9.1-2
For  each  of  the  following  topics  write  at  least  two  questions,  the  answers  to  which must  be 
available  in  the  respective  topics.  For  example,  for  the  topic,  introduction,  a relevant 
question  is  Why  am  I  doing  it?.

(i)  Introduction,

(ii)  Review  of  a  research  topic,

(iii)  Methodology,

(iv)  Research  design,

(v)  Results,

(vi)  Discussion  and

(vii)  Conclusion.

29
Lesson 10.1 What is an oral report and why is
it important
Presentation of one’s research work  in  a  scientific  meeting  is  an  oral  report .  Scientific
meetings  include  conference,  seminar,  symposium,  workshop,  departmental  weekly  seminar,
etc. Researchers  in  certain  research  institutions  not  only  discuss  their  own  work  but  also  have
discussions  on  very  recently  reported  work  of  other  scientists.

An oral report  provides  a  bridge  between  the  researcher  and  audience  and  offers  greater scope 
to  the  researcher  for  explaining  the  actual  work  performed,  its  outcome  and  significance.  It
also leads  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  findings  and  their  implications.  In  an oral  report, 
the  researcher  can  present  the  results  and  interpretations  which  are  not  clearly understood  by 
him  and  may  request  the  experts  in  the  audience  to  give  their  opinions  and suggestions.  Oral
reporting at a conference or a seminar requires more elaborate preparation than the written report.

Lesson 11.1 Preparing and presenting an oral

report
Before  starting  the  preparation  of  an  oral  report,  an  outline  can  be  drawn  based  on  the time 
duration  of  the  report  and  the  quality  of  the  audience.  Departmental seminar  is  usually 45 
minutes  duration.  In  other  meetings  time  duration  is  fixed  by  the  organizer  based  on  the
number  of  days  of  the  meeting,  number  of  speakers  and  the  status  of  a  speaker.

For a long time, report, that is, 45–60-minute presentation, one may have enough time to

(1)  introduce the topic,

(2)  discuss the definition of the problem,

(3)  describe  the  method  and  technique  employed,

(4)  give  technical  details,  and

(5)  present  results  and  conclusion.

30
Consequently,  these  aspects  can  be  prepared  in  detail.

For  a  15–30  minute,  oral  presentation  one  cannot  find  enough  time  to  discuss  complete
details  of  the  work.  In  this  case  less  informative  materials  must  be  dropped.  Methods  and
techniques  used  can  be  presented  very  briefly  without  going  into  technical  details.  Much
time  should  be  reserved  for  results,  conclusion  and  further  directions.

Prepare  a  write-up  of  the  oral  presentation.  It  is  a  good  and  very  helpful  practice  to write 
the  talk  before  presenting  it  orally.  Then  evaluate  the  written  material.  Ask:

(1)  Why  should  the  audience  listen  to  your  presentation?

(2)  Is the presentation match with the standard of the audience?

Revise  the  presentation  until  you  get  convincing  answer  to  the  above  two  questions.  Make
sure  that  your  objective  would  convince  the  audience  that  you  have  done  your  job  well, 

your methodology  is  sound  and  the  findings  are  useful. The  success  of  a  presentation  lies  in 
making  it  long  enough  to  cover  the  topic  and  short enough  to  arouse  curiosity .  Oral 
presentation  can  be  made  effective  and  attractive  by  using modern  visual  devises,  power-
points,  slides  and  transparency  sheets.

Title of the report, author’s name, plan of the presentation, very important content of it and
conclusion can be printed in the slides or sheets possibly point by point with bold and sufficiently
large size letters.  Merely reading out measured or computed data will never catch the attention of the
audience.  They  may  be  displayed  in  the  form  of  histograms.  Important  formulas,  equations,
tables,  figures  and  photographs  can  be  prepared  using  transparency  sheets  or  slides.  Slides
and  transparency  sheets  should  not  contain  running  matters.  Researcher  should  not  simply
read  the  content  in  the  sheets.  That  is,  the  descriptive  portion  of  the  report  should  not  be
prepared  on  the  sheets.

An  abstract  or  a  short  write-up  of  the  presentation  may  be  circulated to  the  participants  of 
the  meeting.  Sophisticated  softwares  developed  for  preparing  the  text on  transparency 
sheets/slides  are  available  in  internet  and  can  be  freely  downloaded.  In  order to  make  the 
presentation,  more  lively,  the  researcher  could  use  multimedia. Nowadays,  the use  of  power-
point  of  Microsoft  Windows  is  common.  It  is  an  easy  and  compact  utility software 
especially  for  preparing  classroom  presentations.

One  could  use  the  audio  aspects  also  to  facilitate  his  presentation  in  a  better  way.  While
presenting  the  topic,  the  researcher  should  strictly  follow  the  class  room  teaching 
methodology.  For  example,  one  should  allow  interaction;  don’t  forget  to  modulate  the  voice 
as  and when  required  and  don’t  violate  the  time  frame.  Logical  continuity  is  another  key 
aspect. Move  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  Your 
statements should  sound  sensible  and  reasonable.  Do  not  speak  too  fast  and  compromise  on 

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clarity,  or speak  too  slowly  and  bore  the  audience.  Make  the  session  interactive  by  posing 
questions.

As  pointed  out  by  Warrier,  there  is  a  dictum  to  be  followed  in  good  speeches:  First  tell 
them what  you  are  going  to  tell.  Next,  you  tell  them.  Then  tell  them  what  you  told  them.
The  most  crucial  part  is  the  actual  presentation  in  front  of  the  listeners.  Stage  fright  is the 
bane  of  most  presenters.  There  is  no  shortcut  to  overcome  this  fear.  One  has  to  practice,
practice  and  practice.  You  can  improve  your  presentation  skill  by  getting  the  feedback  after
you  have  spoken.  Avoid  repeated  use  of  words  or  phrases  such  as  “well”,  “your  see”,  “you
know”,  “I  mean”,  “I  think”,  “that  is”  and  “basically”.  You  should  also  concentrate  on  your
body  language.

Smooth  movements  of  limbs,  an  occasional  smile  and  pleasing  manners would  endear  us  to 
the  listeners.  Look  relaxed  and  comfortable.  Eye  contact  should  be maintained  with  the 
audience.  Let  your  eyes  move  uniformly  around  the  entire  audience and  not  focus  on  any 
particular  person  or  a  particular  part  of  the  audience. One  or  two  rehearsals  of  the  report  in 
the  presence  of  colleagues,  supervisor  and  collaborators  can  be  exercised  in  order  to

(1)  complete  the  presentation  within  the  allotted  time,

(2)  improve  the  quality  of  presentation  and

(3)  maintain  the  fluency  of  the  presentation.

During a long presentation, the speaker  can  stop  the  presentation  at  various  stages,  seek
comments  and  questions  from  the  audience  and  then  proceed.  This  will  make  the 
presentation  attractive,  interesting  and  also  allow  the  audience  to  clarify  their  doubts  so  that 
they can  follow  the  work.  Your  clarifications  should  be  clear  and  convincing.  Never go  into 
arguments.  Your confidence gets boosted, if you approach the situation with a feeling that the
expert  panel  is  there  to  help  you.  An  important  point  is  to  consider  the  tone  to  adopt  so
that  you  sound  genuine.

Lesson 12.1 Ten commandments of PowerPoint

presentation
Follow this website and master these commandments for a great presentations

https://www.slideshare.net/effectworks/10-commandments-for-great-presentations (Links to an
external site.)

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Lesson 12.2 Tips on PowerPoint presentation

This website provide useful information on basic rules of PowerPoint presentation. You are
encouraged to read and abide by these rules in order to produce a successful presentation

https://daily.wizbii.com/commandments-powerpoint-presentation/ (Links to an external site.)

Exercise 12.3
Pick a topic of your choice and prepare a PowerPoint presentation of not more than 15 slides

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