Daughtry - Russia's New Anthem and The Negotiation of National Identity

Russia's New Anthem and the Negotiation of National Identity
Author(s): J. Martin Daughtry

Source: Ethnomusicology , Winter, 2003, Vol. 47, No. 1 (Winter, 2003), pp. 42-67
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of Society for Ethnomusicology
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VOL. 47, No. 1 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY WINTER 2003
Russia's New Anthem and the

Negotiation of National Identity
J. MARTIN DAUGHTRY / University of California, Los Angeles
National anthems are often thought to embody the ideologies and col-
lective self-images of the nations to which they are attached; anthems
are, in the words of one historian, the "collective voice" of nations (Eyck
1995:xx). This view is complicated somewhat by the fact that ideologies and
collective self-images are subject to the conflicting and ever-changing inter-
pretations of groups and individuals within nations and as such are always
conditional, contestable, and fluid. For this reason it is perhaps more pro-
ductive to regard an anthem not as the static reflection of a monolithic ide-
ology but rather as a polysemous text through which national identity is
constantly being negotiated. Occasionally these negotiations break down;
when the disparity between a nation's collective self-image (as interpreted
by popular consensus or dictatorial whim) and its anthem's immanent range
of meanings becomes too great, the anthem is often revised or removed. (To
take an example from Russian history, no amount of creative interpretation
could reconcile "God Save the Tsar" with the identity of a post-tsarist Rus-
sia, so the Provisional Government of 1917 was forced to discard it.) While
this phenomenon commonly accompanies changes of regime, moments in
which state symbols are changed during regimes are more rare, and as such
provide a particularly productive point of entry into discourses on national
identity. The much-publicized "national anthem crisis" in Russia in late 2000
was one such moment.
Old Melody, New Anthem

On December 25, 2000, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a con
troversial law entitled "On the National Anthem of the Russian Federation."
For most of the preceding decade, the Russian national anthem had been
"Patriotic Song," an instrumental piece written by the nineteenth-century
? 2003 by the Society for Ethnomusicology
42

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Daughtry: Russia's New Anthem 43
composer Mikhail Glinka. The new law replaced this piece with the melody
of its immediate predecessor, the anthem commonly known as "Unbreakable
Union."' Composed by a Soviet general, with lyrics written by a children's
poet and personally edited by Joseph Stalin, "Unbreakable Union" had served
as the national anthem of the Soviet Union for 46 years, from the middle of
World War II through the end of perestroika. Soon after the law was signed,
a new set of lyrics for the anthem was proposed and swiftly ratified. By New
Year's Day 2001, the old melody of the Soviet anthem had gained a new iden-
tity as "Russia, Our Holy Power," the second post-Soviet anthem of the Rus-
sian Federation.2
The movement to reinstate the Soviet anthem melody sparked a range

of public reactions in Russia in the weeks leading up to and immediately
following the passage of the new legislation. From the floor of the Parliament,
politicians gave fiery speeches, alternately hailing and denouncing the pro-
posed anthem. Newspapers published daily updates and impassioned edito-
rials. "Itogi," a primetime TV news magazine on Russia's main independent
network, devoted an entire hour-long broadcast to the issue.3 Thousands of
private citizens voiced their opinions on the Internet and in street demon-
strations. Fascinated by the magnitude of the public uproar over a piece of
music-and unable to travel to Russia to observe it firsthand-I engaged in
several months of "virtual fieldwork," collecting and interpreting a large
number of postings from individual and mass-media websites.4 Most of these
texts reflected two fundamentally opposed positions in the anthem dis-
course.' A plurality of Russians appeared to view the rehabilitation of the
Soviet anthem melody as a positive move, one that allowed Russian citizens
to take pride in their past and honor the considerable accomplishments of
the Soviet Union, not least of which was its decisive role in the defeat of
fascism in World War II. A smaller but much more vociferous group regarded
the anthem as an unprecedented affront to the millions who suffered and died
under Stalin and an ominous sign of a future return to the authoritarian poli-
cies of the Soviet era. According to most estimates, each of these groups
comprised tens of millions of people. Never before in Russia's history had
the meaning of a piece of music been contested so passionately. In the
present article I chronicle this conflict and situate it within (1) the twenti-
eth-century history of national anthems in Russia, and (2) the ongoing struggle
to determine Russia's national identity.
Musical Nationalism and National Anthems
Musical expressions of nationalism have emerged as a central ar

ethnomusicological inquiry in the last decade." One area that has l
escaped our attention, however, is the articulation of nationalist a

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44 Ethnomusicology, Winter 2003
within precomposed orchestral works that employ European tonal conven-

tions-i.e., "Western classical music" -the broad category into which most
national anthems appear to fit (Boyd 2001). Despite our oft-heralded willing-
ness to study all of the world's musical communities, we continue to be
largely content to leave the analysis of Western classical music to our col-
leagues in musicology.7 Western musicologists, for their part, have tended
to equate musical nationalism exclusively with nineteenth-century European
Romantic elites who, influenced by the work of German writer Johann
Gottfried von Herder, began collecting folklore and incorporating it into art
music settings in order to express a distilled musical sense of "Russianness,"
"Hungarianness," etc. (Taruskin 1996:9-11). In the past several years, a num-
ber of musicologists (led most notably by Richard Taruskin [1996; 2001])
have problematized this narrow view of musical nationalism. Nonetheless,
for the time being at least, when discussing compositions like the Russian
national anthem it seems prudent to mention that the definition of musical
nationalism as a nineteenth-century Romantic phenomenon is not implied.
For the present study, our picture of musical nationalism may attain
greater clarity if we delineate two of the possible modes in which it is often
articulated within Western orchestral and choral music. These modes are
roughly equivalent in scope to the species and genus categories of scientific

classification, and I have provisionally assigned the adjectival forms of thos
words to them. Through this lens, the nineteenth-century Romantic compo
ers of Herderian bent can be considered producers of specific musical natio
alism, i.e., music in which local folk elements (or Orientalized facsimiles
thereof) are employed to impart the flavor of a particular ethnicity or nation.
The majority of the world's national anthems, by contrast, index nationhood
in quite a different way: by adhering to musical conventions established by
their European predecessors.8 In other words, we ascribe a nationalistic as-
pect to these pieces because they sound familiarly "anthemic." This type of
musical nationalism can be called generic in the sense that it references na-
tionalism as a supranational category, as a genus (or, given that we are deal-
ing with music, as a genre).
In his insightful essay on anthems in the revised New Grove Dictionary,
Malcolm Boyd singles out two compositions as providing the generic foun-
dation for the majority of the world's anthems. "God Save the King/Queen,"
widely considered the oldest of all national anthems, has been a model for
many anthems in Europe and the former colonies. This piece, with its "stately
rhythmic tread and ... smooth melodic movement" is the archetype for the
anthem-as-hymn (Boyd 2001:655). Indeed, in many languages (including Rus-
sian) the word for national anthem is borrowed from the Latin hymnus, thus
underlining the extent to which anthems are seen as quasi-sacred vehicles
praising either the monarch or the state itself. As Boyd further notes, an alter-

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native to the anthem-as-hymn model is the anthem-as-march exemplified by

the "Marseillaise" of the French Republic. This rousing martial piece, with its
characteristic alternative of dotted-eighth and sixteenth notes and double in-
stance of ascending perfect fourths, has proven highly influential.9 I will re-
turn to these two archetypes later, as each has inspired more than one national
anthem in Russia's history. In the meantime, it is sufficient to acknowledge
that most anthems -including all of Russia'so10-participate in a largely Euro-
pean tradition of nationalist cultural products, a tradition that has been some-
what peripheral in musicological and ethnomusicological inquiry."
Performance and Affect
Within this tradition, anthems can be distinguished from other cultur

products such as flags and emblems in that they are performed, and usuall
performed collectively. Benedict Anderson, in one of his rare digressions int
music, muses on the peculiar power of collective performance:
There is a special kind of contemporaneous community which language alo
suggests-above all in the form of poetry and songs. Take national anthems, fo
example, sung on national holidays. No matter how banal the words and med
cre the tunes, there is in this singing an experience of simultaneity. At precisely
such moments, people wholly unknown to each other utter the same verses t
the same melody. The image: unisonance. Singing the "Marseillaise," Waltzi
Matilda, and Indonesia Raya provide occasions for unisonality, for the echo
physical
feels! realization
If we are awareofthat
theothers
imagined community.
are singing these .... Howprecisely
songs selfless when
this uniso
and
we are, we have no idea who they may be, or even where, out of earshot, th
are singing. Nothing connects us all but imagined sound. (1991:132-33)
Thus, anthems are used to generate a collective sentiment among the mem
bers of the groups who sing them. This mildly altered state, which Ander
son calls "unisonance" and James Porter refers to as "ideological euphor
(1998:185) is not wholly unrelated to the ecstatic state achieved in many ritu
situations. Take for example the healing songs of the Tumbuka of Norther
Malawi, as described by Steven Friedson: "[m]any... Tumbuka relate t
music to the batteries in radios. ... One produces electricity through chemi
cal reactions, the other produces heat through music and dance. Both a
technologies in the sense that they are cultural means ... of controlling en-
ergy for utilitarian purposes" (1998:280). Tumbuka healing songs prod
the heat necessary to cure a patient; an anthem produces the heat need
to affect the nation's birth and/or constant regeneration through the ima
nations of its citizenry (cf. Anderson 1991). In this way, both genres can b
seen as technology "in Heidegger's ([1977]1993) sense: a technology th
reveals a world" (Friedson 1998:280-81).

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The heat that anthems generate is often so valued by state authorities

that laws are enacted to regulate their performance (Mach 1994:61). A re-
cent presidential decree in Russia provides a current example of state con-
trol over anthem performance. The decree prescribes the audience's behavior
when the national anthem is performed:
During official performances of the State anthem of Russia those present are to
listen to it standing, men without headgear. In the event that the performance
of the anthem is accompanied by the raising of the State flag of Russia, those
present are to turn to face the flag. ... Any performance or use of the anthem
in violation of this law, and also disrespect expressed toward the anthem will
be subject to prosecution in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Fed-
eration. ("Zakonodatel'stvo" 2001)12
This legally enforced ritual dimension of anthems elevates them above the
level of mere propaganda. The role that anthems play in coordinating the
collective act of imagination that generates and maintains national identity
gives them a special cultural status.
The Origin of "Unbreakable Union"

In the Soviet Union of 1943, power to confer such unique status on a
piece of music rested solely in the hands of the General Secretary of the
Communist Party, Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin. In the summer of that year,
Stalin voiced his desire to replace the existing national anthem, the "Inter-
nationale," with a new anthem to inspire and invigorate the war-weary coun-
try and, presumably, to celebrate the pivotal Soviet victories at Stalingrad,
Kursk, and on the Dniepr river. A contest was announced. Two young army
officers, Sergei Mikhalkov (b. 1913), who had been a writer of children's
poems before the war, and his friend, the poet Garol'd El'-Registan (b. 1924),
collaborated on a set of lyrics. Amidst scores of submissions, their entry
caught Stalin's eye. Before approving the lyrics, however, Stalin demanded
a number of alterations. What follows is an excerpt from Mikhalkov's account
of his first face-to-face meeting with this most intimidating editor: "In the dark
vestibule between the doors we mechanically cross ourselves and cross the
threshold of the state office. It is 10:30 p.m. ... Directly across from us the
Leader himself is standing with a piece of paper in his hands. We greet him:
'Hello, Comrade Stalin!' ... 'Familiarize yourselves with this!' he says sharply
[handing them the paper with his corrections]. 'Do you have any objections?
The most important thing is to preserve these thoughts. Is this possible?'"
(Mikhalkov 1998:6). Stalin made a number of changes in the lyrics before
approving them. He then convened a commission to decide what melody
best fit the text. Several famous composers, including Shostakovich, Proko-
fiev, and Khachaturian, submitted entries. Ultimately, however, the melody

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that pleased Stalin most was the tune that the lyricists had had in mind when
they wrote the text: "The Anthem of the Bolshevik Party" ("Gimn partii
Bol'shevikov"), composed by the founder of the Red (later Soviet) Army Song
and Dance Ensemble and a prolific composer of patriotic music, General
Alexander Aleksandrov (1883-1946). In keeping with the martial ethos of
the time, this piece adhered to the anthem-as-march model, closely resem-
bling the "Internationale" and, to a certain extent, the "Marseillaise." Stalin
decreed that Aleksandrov's piece and the "Internationale" switch places: the
"Internationale" was re-designated as the official Anthem of the Bolshevik
Figure 1. Lyrics of the 1944 version of "Unbreakable Union."

# English Translation Transliteration
Verse 1:
1 An unbreakable union of free republics Soyuz nerushimy respublik svob6dnyk

2 Has been eternally welded together by great Russia. Splotila naviki velikaya Rus.
3 All hail the united and mighty Soviet Union, Da zdrdvstvuet s6zdanny v6lei nar6
4 Created by the will of the people! Yediny, moguchi Sove'tski Soyuz!
Refrain 1
5 Glory to our free fatherland, Sldvsya Otbchestvo ndshe svob6dnoe,
6 The reliable bastion of the peoples' friendship! Druzhby nar6dov nady6zbny op
7 May the Soviet banner, the people's banner Zndmya sovitskoe, zndmya nar
8 Lead us from one victory to the next! Past otpobddy k pobdde vedy6t!
Verse 2
9 The sun of freedom glowed through the storm Skvoz gr6zy siydlo nam s6lntse svob6
10 And the great Lenin illuminated our path. I Linin veliki nam pit ozaril.
11 Thus Stalin has raised us, to be loyal to the people, Nas vyrastil Stdlin - na vernost nar6du,
12 And he inspired us to labor and do great deeds Na trud i na p6dvigi nds vdokbnovil.
Refrain 2
13 Glory to our free fatherland Sldvsya Otbchestvo ndshe svob6dnoe
14 The reliable bastion of the peoples' happiness! Shdstya nar6dov nady6zbny opl
15 May the Soviet banner, the people's banner Zndmya sove'tskoe, zndmya nar
Verse 3
17 We cultivated our army in battle, My drmiyu ndshu rastili v srazhenyakh,
18 We will wipe all despicable invaders from our path! Zakhvdtchikovp6dlykh s dor6gi smety6m
19 In battle, we decide the fate of future generations, My v bitvakh resbdem sudbu pokoldni,
20 We will lead our fatherland to glory! My k sidve Otchiznu svoyu povedy6m!
Refrain 3
21 Glory to our free fatherland Sldvsya Otbchestvo ndshe svob6dnoe
22 The reliable bastion of the peoples' glory! Slivy nar6dov nady6zhny opl6t!
23 May the Soviet banner, the people's banner Zndmya sov-tskoe, zndmya nar6dnoe

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Party, while Aleksandrov's composition, with Mikhalkov and El'-Registan's

lyrics, became the national anthem. The new anthem, which begins with the
words "Unbreakable Union" ("Soyuz nerushimyi"), was given its first official
performance on January 1, 1944.13
Stalin's decision to retire the "Internationale" in favor of "Unbreakable
Union" provides us with a snapshot of his personal negotiation between

official Marxist doctrine and Stalinist realpolitik (Marx [199311945;
Vihavainen 2000:75-77). According to Marx, the nation-state is a manifesta-
tion of bourgeois culture that will ultimately be surmounted by a united pro-
letariat. This sentiment is expressed directly in the "Internationale," the So-
viet translation of which begins: "Arise, you who have been stamped with a
curse: the entire world of the hungry and the slaves! ... We will destroy this
world of violence and then build a new world, [where] he who was
insignificant will be all-powerful!" Stalin, who at the time was indisputably
the world's most prominent Marxist, acknowledged the utility of creating a
strong Soviet national identity: it was easier to convince soldiers to die for
an imagined Soviet "fatherland" than for the more abstract ideal of interna-
tional communism. In this sense, "Unbreakable Union" was the Soviet Union's
first "nationalist" national anthem. The first verse of the lyrics establishes the
image of a unified Soviet nation, albeit a Russified one ("eternally welded
together by great Russia"). Additionally, several semantically loaded terms that
contribute to this image are repeated throughout the lyrics. These include
the Russian words for "union" (soyuz); "freedom/free" (svoboda/
svobodnoye); modern and archaic words for "fatherland" (otechestvo,
otchizna); and the pithy word "narod," which can be translated variously
as "people," "folk," or "nation." All of these words either coincide with or
are semantically linked to a small body of terms that some political scientists
have labeled "key concepts of [Russian] nationalism" (Chulos and Piirainen
2000:9). The tension between the nationalist impulse and the international-
ist character of Marxism was maintained to one degree or another through-
out the history of the Union, but never was it felt more strongly than during
the Stalinist era.
A Change in Lyrics and in Ideology: "Unbreakable Union"

After Stalin
Soon after Stalin's death in 1953, the lyrics to "Unbreakable Union" were
removed by Nikita Khrushchev as part of his denunciation of Stalin and the
cult of personality that had surrounded him. The anthem remained officially
wordless for over twenty years, throughout Khrushchev's reign and well into
that of his successor, Leonid Brezhnev. In 1977, the search for a politically
acceptable alternative to the Stalin-infused text finally ended. That year, the

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Figure 2. Comparison of the 1944 and 1977 lyrics to "Unbreakable Union."
The 1977 version is printed on the left. Lines removed from the 1944 version are printed in italics on
the right. The lines that replaced them are printed in bold on the left. The second and third refrains of
the 1944 version were omitted from the 1977 version, in which the refrain is simply repeated.
# 1977 Version 1944 Version lines that were changed

(English translation and transliteration) (English translation)
Verse 1
1 An unbreakable union of free republics

Soyuz nerushimy respublik svob6dnykh
2 Has been eternally welded together by great Russia.
Splotila naviki velikaya Rus.
3 All hail the united and mighty Soviet Union,
Da zdrdvstvuet s6zdanny v6lei nar6dov,
4 Created by the will of the people!
Yediny, mogfichi Sove'tski Soyfiz!
Refrain:
5 Glory to our free fatherland,
Sldvsya Otichestvo ndshe svob6dnoe,
6 The reliable bastion of friendship among the peoples!
Druizhby nar6dov nady6zhny opl6t!
7 The Party of Lenin, the strength of the people May the Soviet banner, the people's
Pdrtiya Lenina, sila nar6dnaya banner
8 Will lead us to communism's triumph! Lead us from one victory to the next!
Nas k torzhestvu kommunizma vedy6t!
Verse 2
9 The sun of freedom glowed through the storm,

Skvoz gr6zy siydlo nam s6lntse svob6dy
10 And the great Lenin illuminated our path.
I Lenin veliki nam pfit ozaril.
11 He lifted the peoples to the right cause, Thus Stalin has raised us, to be loyal to
Na prdvoe dilo on p6dnyal nar6dy, the people
12 And inspired us to labor and to do great deeds!
Na trud i na p6dvigi nas vdokhnovil.
REPEAT REFRAIN:
Verse 3
13 In the victory of the eternal ideas of communism We cultivated our army in battle,
V pobdde bessmdrtnykh iddi kommunizma
14 We see the future of our country, We will wipe all despicable invaders
My vidim gryaddishee ndshei strany', from our path!
15 And to the red banner of our glorious In battle, we decide the fate offuture
fatherland, generations,
I krdsnomu zndmeni v6lei otchizny,
16 WVe will always be selflessly faithfu
My budem vsegdd bezzavitno vernf/
REPEAT REFRAIN:

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co-author of the original lyrics, Sergei Mikhalkov, completed work on a re-

vised set that matched more closely the Party's conception of the post-Stalinist
Soviet Union (see Figure 2).
In addition to expunging all references to Stalin, Mikhalkov's new lyrics
significantly increased the salience of Lenin. The "great deeds" that Stalin
inspired in the 1944 version (line #12) were attributed to Lenin in the 1977
version. And the climax of the refrain (line #7), which had previously
foregrounded "the Soviet banner, the people's banner," was altered to "the
Party of Lenin, the strength of the people." Also, the third stanza's commit-
ment to victory through war ("In battle, we decide the fate of future genera-
tions"), relevant in 1944 but less so in 1977, was replaced with an affirmation
of triumph through superior ideology ("In the victory of the eternal ideas of
communism / we see the future of our country"). These changes can be read
as part of the broad effort to erase the mistakes of the Stalinist era from the
country's consciousness, and to provide a revised national image in which
the lionized persona of Lenin, the country's founding father, eclipsed the
personae of its present leadership. This new version of "Unbreakable Union"
remained the national anthem of the Soviet Union until its demise.
A New Anthem for a New Nation: Glinka's "Patriotic Song"

The events leading up to the disintegration of the Soviet Union in De-
cember 1991 have been exhaustively documented and analyzed, and do not
need to be repeated in detail here. It is sufficient to recall that by 1990 Boris
Yeltsin had become the factual leader of the Russian Republic, which at that
point was still nominally part of the USSR.'" At some point during that year,
it was brought to Yeltsin's attention that the Russian Republic was the only
Soviet republic lacking its own anthem. According to musicologist Alexander
Belonenko, the Russian president solved this problem "very quickly, in the
traditional Russian manner":
I unfortunately don't know who his advisor was, but somehow [Mikhail Glinka's]
"Patriotic Song" ("Patrioticheskaya pesnya") was proposed.... I was told that,
[when the piece was officially played], Boris Nikolayevich [Yeltsin] stood up,
everyone stood up. .... Well, basically, with that volitional move it was decided
that Glinka's song had become the anthem. (Rezunkov 2000)
That a work by Glinka should be chosen surprised no one. The historica

setting for his first opera and his penchant for adapting Russian folk melo-
dies in his compositions had earned Glinka a reputation as "the father of Rus-
sian musical nationalism" (Frolova-Walker 1998:341-42, 350; Taruskin
1997:25-47). Moreover, "Patriotic Song" exhibited the "stately rhythmic tread
and ... smooth melodic movement" of the anthem-as-hymn model that pro-
duced "God Save the King/Queen" and "God Save the Tsar." It was not the
most obvious candidate among Glinka's works, however; the popular and

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majestic chorus from the epilogue to his opera A Life for the Tsar (Zhizn'
za tsarya) had long been regarded as "Russia's second national anthem"
(Rezunkov 2000), and had been proposed as a possible successor to "God
Save the Tsar" back in 1917. Nonetheless, the die had been cast by Yeltsin,
and two years after Russia became a sovereign nation, the Parliament ratified
"Patriotic Song" as the Russian Federation's official national anthem."
The Glinka anthem lacked lyrics, and submissions began pouring in from
all over the country. However, ten years and over six thousand submissions
later, the Russian government remained unable to agree upon a suitable text
for "Patriotic Song." In the meantime, factions within the Russian Parliament
had begun to question the appropriateness of the Glinka anthem, with some
Communists and their allies advocating a return to the rousing strains of
"Unbreakable Union" and others suggesting that a new piece be composed.
The most widely-reported indictment of "Patriotic Song" came from
members of "Spartak Moscow," Russia's flagship soccer team. In an open
letter sent to newly-elected President Vladimir Putin in the summer of 2000,
the team urged him to find a set of lyrics for Russia's wordless anthem. Ac-
cording to several reports, the players felt that the lack of a "proper anthem"
to sing at matches was affecting their morale and performance (Yablokova
2000). Similar complaints were voiced by Russian gold medal winners at the
2000 Olympics, who felt embarrassed to be the only ones whose lips did not
move as their national anthem was performed at the awards ceremonies
(McLaughlin 2000).16
A nationwide poll conducted on November 13, 2000, revealed that only
fifteen percent of the Russian people supported the Glinka anthem ("Major-
ity" 2000). Ostensibly in response to the popular discontent demonstrated
by the poll and by letters such as those from the Spartak soccer team and
the Olympic athletes, President Putin established a government commission
charged with examining a number of options (including adopting a new
anthem, writing lyrics to the Glinka melody, or resurrecting the Tsarist or
Communist-era anthem melodies) and proposing a solution to the anthem
crisis. He also made it known that he personally preferred Aleksandrov's
"Unbreakable Union" melody over all others. The commission examined eight
possible anthems, including a popular patriotic film tune from the 1930s, "My
Native Country is Vast" ("Shiroka strana moya rodnaya"), and a song submit-
ted by the perennial Russian pop superstar Alla Pugacheva. But, given the
popularity and influence of Putin's administration, it was no great surprise
when the commission announced its recommendation to reinstate
Aleksandrov's melody (minus the Soviet lyrics, of course). The ir

choice-replacing an anthem criticized for its lack of lyrics with
which the lyrics had been stripped-was described by one crit
ing on the absurd (Chudakova et al. 2000:7). Nonetheless, the
made official on December 8, 2000, when the lower house of the

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(the Duma) voted for the anthem, with 381 in favor and 51 opposed. Three
weeks later, after Putin had signed the Duma resolution into law, the Duma
approved a new set of lyrics, based largely on a version submitted by none
other than Sergei Mikhalkov, now 87, the author of the original Stalinist lyr-
ics of 1943 and the de-Stalinized revision of 1977. Much of Mikhalkov's first
submission was rejected, apparently due to the fact that he had taken much
of the first stanza from an ode to Stalin he wrote in the 1940s ("V novy vek
so stalinskim gimnom" 2000). His lyrics were then altered by a government-
organized committee. The official version, titled "Russia, Our Holy Power"
("Rossiya, svyashchennaya nasha derzhava"), reads as shown in Figure 3:17
One could criticize these lyrics for a number of banal phrases ("so it was, so
it is, and so it always will be"; "you are the only one on earth") or for the al-
most comic alteration between formal, inflated language ("a mighty will and
great glory are your achievement for all time") and language displaying what
could be described as a New Age sensibility ("a wide space for dreams and
for life are opened to us by the coming years"). Nonetheless, on the surface
at least, the image of Russian national identity that is evoked by these lyrics
could hardly be more different than the one created by the Soviet anthem.
Figure 3. Lyrics to "Russia, Our Holy Power."

Verse 1
1 Russia, our holy power, Rossfya svyashbnnaya ndsha derzbdva

2 Russia, our beloved [or "favorite"] country! Rossiya lyubimaya ndsha str
3 A mighty will and great glory Mogaichaya v6lya, velikaya sliva
4 Are your achievement for all time! Tvoy6 dostoydnie na vs' vremend!
Refrain
5 Glory to our free Fatherland Sldvsya Otichestvo ndshe svob6dnoe
6 An age-old union of fraternal Peoples Brdtskikh nar6dov soydiz vekov6i!
7 The People's wisdom, given by our ancestors- Prjdkami ddnnaya madrost nar6dnaya
8 Glory to you, country! We are proud of you! Sldvsya strand! My gordimsya tob6i!
Verse 2
9 From the southern seas to the Polar regions Otyazhnykh morei do polydrnovo krd
10 Our forests and fields have spread out. Raskinulis' ndshi lesd ipolyd.
11 You are the only one on earth! You are unique- Odnd ty na svite! Odnd ty takdya -
12 Protected by God, our native land! Khranimaya B6gom rodndya zemlyd!
REPEAT REFRAIN
Verse 3
13 A wide space for dreams and for life Shir6kiprost6r dlya mechty' i d
14 Are opened for us by the coming years. Gryadtishie nam otkryvdyut
15 Our faithfulness to the Fatherland gives us strength. Nam silu day6t ndsha virn
16 So it was, so it is, and so it always will be! Tak bf lo, tak ist i tak budet
REPEAT REFRAIN

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All overt references to the atheist Socialist state and the pursuit of commu-
nism are gone; in their place are lines describing Russia as "a holy country
... protected by God." The personae of Lenin and Stalin are replaced by the
anthropomorphized country, which is addressed directly using the familiar
second person pronoun, "ty." The future of the country no longer promises
"the victory of the eternal ideas of communism"; rather, it will bring "a wide
space for dreams and for life." Critiques of poetic value aside, it would appear
that the new lyrics provide an image of a radically new nation for Russians to
imagine into existence. As a result, one might expect that the reactionaries
would have more cause for outrage than the progressives. Of course, this was
not the case: the Communists and other parties aligned with the government
enthusiastically supported the anthem, while the liberals denounced it with
one voice. In the final section of the present article I analyze several reasons-
some obvious, others less so-why this occurred. Before doing so, however,
let us examine in some detail the two principal positions in the conflict.
The December 2000 Discourse on a New Russian

National Anthem
The cursory history above demonstrates the extent to which nati

anthems can be implicated in the advancement of new national ideolo
It seems that an important, even indispensable, way to erase the ideology
the past, be it the Tsar's or Stalin's or Yeltsin's, is through song. To pick
the metaphor of music-as-technology once again, the "heat" generate
Russia's twentieth-century anthems was used to encourage and coordi
numerous revisions of national sentiment. However, an anthem's heat is no
all-powerful; no piece of music can fully divest citizens of their individu
agency, forcing them to participate in the creation of a nation the chara
of which they despise. This fact is made abundantly clear by the widespr
and vociferous protests that erupted in reaction to the Parliament's decis
to reinstate the Soviet-era melody in December 2000. By examining a num
ber of these reactions I hope to demonstrate that, as a technology design
to "reveal a world" of national unity and cohesion, the new anthem's effe
tiveness was weakened both by internal flaws and external schisms.
Having lost all of its sovereignty-and no small amount of its sway-ov
Eastern Europe, Central Asia, the Caucasus, Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus
the Baltics, Russia's geographic borders have shrunk to their smallest poi
in centuries. Numerous conflicts, of which Chechnya has been the m
bloody, have challenged Russia's authority within its official borders dur
its first decade of independence. On the world stage Russia's severely atte
ated stature has earned it the ignominious label of "former superpow
Domestically, the standard of living for the bulk of the population is low,
spans are short, suicide rates are high, clinical depression is rampant. It w

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in the context of these statistics that the Parliament voted to bring back the
melody of the Soviet anthem. Some analysts interpreted the decision as an
attempt to ameliorate Russia's troubled present by evoking the grandeur of
its Soviet past. Others read an additional, more sinister motive into the reap-
pearance of the Soviet anthem melody-revanchism--and launched vocal
protests as a result.
The active supporters of Aleksandrov's anthem consisted primarily of
Communists and pro-government politicians. The most vocal detractors
comprised liberal politicians and the majority of the so-called "cultural intel-
ligentsia." Significantly, and not at all surprisingly, politicians and members
of the cultural elite on both sides of the conflict often claimed to speak on
behalf of the largely silent "Russian people."
Politicians
For the months of November and December 2000, the anthem was a
central issue of debate among politicians; every major Russian political figure
voiced an opinion. This debate underscored the ideological divide that sepa-
rates the Russian left (e.g., Communists and Putin's "Unity" coalition) from
its moderate right (e.g., the Western-leaning "liberal" parties). President Putin,
the most influential supporter of Aleksandrov's anthem, made the following
comments in a televised address to the country:
Recently, particularly heated discussions have surrounded the anthem, the

former Soviet anthem composed by Aleksandrov. You and I know the results of
the opinion polls-an overwhelming majority of Russian citizens prefer precisely
this melody. It is difficult to disagree with the logic that not every question can
be decided by the arithmetic majority. But let us not forget that in this case we
are talking about the majority of the people ["narod"]. In the final analysis, these
State symbols are being proposed for that very narod. I will admit the possibil-
ity that the narod and I are making a mistake. But I want to appeal to those who
are not in favor of this decision. I ask you to refrain from dramatizing the situa-
tion and erecting insurmountable barriers, from burning bridges and splitting
society yet again. If we agree that it is unacceptable to use the symbols of past
epochs, including the Soviet epoch, then we must admit that entire generations
of our countrymen-including our mothers and fathers-lived useless, senseless
lives, that they existed for naught. I cannot agree with that, not with my head,
not with my heart. (Putin 2000)
Putin's speech was a finely crafted piece of persuasive rhetoric. In equating

his position with the unequivocal will of the Russian people ("I will admit
the possibility that the narod and I are making a mistake"), he implied that
all dissenters are outsiders, separated from the narod, extremist agitators who
hope to destroy the unity of Russian society. This rare nationally-televised
appearance demonstrates the high priority that the anthem held for Putin;
it also points to his realization that opposition to the new anthem was for-

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midable. For one of the first times, Putin found himself publicly pitted against
his mentor, former President Boris Yeltsin. (Yeltsin, who had handed the
presidency to Putin on New Year's Eve, 1999, was the very person who re-
tired "Unbreakable Union" a decade earlier.) On December 6, 2000, Yeltsin
gave an interview containing his most overt criticism of Putin's policies to
date: "I am categorically opposed to the return of the anthem of the USSR as
our state anthem ... I associate the anthem with only one thing: [Commu-
nist] Party Congresses, at which the power of Party bureaucrats was
confirmed and strengthened" ("Interv'yu" 2000). Yeltsin avowed that the
return of the anthem merely confirmed his belief that he should have out-
lawed the Communist Party in 1991.
Back on the other side of the political fence, the ruling coalition of the
Communist and Unity parties actively lobbied for the rehabilitation of the
Soviet anthem melody. In the words of Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov, "The
Soviet [anthem's] melody is easy to remember. It sent 'goose bumps' down
my body when I was in the army." The Glinka anthem does not generate a
"shivering thrill. It's not very vivid. .. and therefore does not 'hearten'-as
any good anthem should" (Lambroshini 2000a, translator unknown).
Kasyanov's comment was typical of the pro-Aleksandrov camp, which
tended to cast its praise of his melody in experiential rather than ideological
terms (e.g., "Unbreakable Union" is a rousing piece of music). Indeed, as the
December 8 Duma vote demonstrated, the "shivering thrill" was a partisan
experience: the Yabloko Party and the Union of Right Forces (Soyuz Pravykh
Sil, or SPS), the two most liberal Parliamentary factions, voted against the new
anthem, and the parties' luminaries denounced it con brio. Grigory Yavlinsky,
leader of the Yabloko Party, labeled the decision "a signal of where our soci-
ety is heading. It shows what we should expect in the near future. It is re-
vealing-it takes away any illusions in regard to the short- and mid-term policy
of this country's leadership." Boris Nemtsov, leader of the SPS Party, echoed
this position, calling the decision a "major political mistake ... that is going
to reverberate for a long time" (in Lambroshini 2000b). Nemtsov also made
a novel proposition that he said would remedy the damage inflicted by the
proposed anthem. He announced that he and his party would support the
return of Aleksandrov's anthem if the government agreed to remove Lenin's
corpse from the Mausoleum on Red Square and convert the notorious marble
structure into a "Memorial Complex in Memory of the Victims of the Politi-
cal Turmoil of the Twentieth Century, Dedicated to All Who Died as a Re-
sult of the Revolution, the Civil War, and Political Repression." This provoca-
tive proposition was followed by an overtly satirical one: the SPS Party
proposed as lyrics to Aleksandrov's anthem those given in Figure 4, thus, ac-
cording to some accounts, forcing the Parliament to formally debate its merits
on the floor.

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Figure 4. SPS Party's proposed lyrics for the Russian anthem.18

Verse 1
1 From sea to sea, spreading out freely Ot m6rya do morya raskinulas v61no
2 Is a country of businesslike and active people! Strand delovykh i aktivnykh lyudgi!
3 In free Russia the peoples are satisfied, V svob6dnoi Rossii nar6dy dov6lny,
4 Living under the wing of liberal ideas! Zhivyd pod kryl6m liberdlnykh idgi!
Refrain 1
5 Glory to you, our open society, Sldvsya ty 6bshestvo nashe otkrytoe,
6 [Clearing a] broad path for investment! Dlyd investitsi shir6kiprokh6d!
7 The rapid development of a hard currency market Rynka valy itnovo bystrorazvitie
8 Will lead us to the triumph of globalism! Nds k torzhestvUt globalizma vedy6t!
Verse 2
9 The tsars and "gen-secs" [General Secretaries] didn't Tsarf i "gensdki" nar6d ne slomili,
destroy the narod,
10 And we've swept communism's ashes from our Iprakh kommunizma stryakhnadli my
feet! n6g!
11 Our rights and f

12 We labor honestly and pay our taxes! My tra'dimsya chdstno ipldtim nal6g!
Refrain 2
13 Glory to the peoples' private property, Sldvsya nar6dnaya s6bstvennost
chdstnaya,
14 The reliable guarantee of human rights! Prdv chelovika nady6zhny gardnt!
15 We will build such a beautiful life Zhizn mypostr6im takayu prekrdsnuyu
16 That every emigrant will come back to us! K ndm vozvratitsya lyub6di emigrdnt!
Verse 3
17 In the friendly accordance of labor and capital Vsogldsi'i drtfzhnom truda s kapitdlom
18 We envision the future of our country, My vidim gryadtfshee nashei stranf,
19 And to the right-leaning ideas of our native liberals Ik prdvym iddyam rodnfkh liberdlov
20 We will be selflessly faithful! My bzudem vsegdd bezzavgtno vernf.!

Refrain 3
21 Glory to our free Fatherland, Sldvsya Otichestvo nashe svob6dnoe,
22 The reliable bastion of monetarism! Monetarizma nady6zhny opl6t!
23 Russia, distinctive and multinational Ras samobftnaya, mnogonar6dnaya
24 Will provide the world with a lesson in liberalism! Miru ur6k liberdilny day6t!
Several lines of the proposed lyrics are copied directly from the official 1977
text (e.g., lines 18, 20, 21), but their placement creates an ironic inversion
of their original meaning. Other lines from the 1977 text are altered satiri-
cally (e.g., lines 5, 8, 13). There is no public record of the extent to which
the Duma deputies appreciated the irony of the SPS lyrics. It is not in the least

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surprising, however, that neither of the SPS propositions found much sup-
port during the voting process. Putin's coalition won the day, and
Aleksandrov's composition with Mikhalkov's new text was adopted by a
margin that reflected party lines.
The Cultural Intelligentsia

In contrast to Russia's politicians, who split into two camps regarding
the anthem, the cultural intelligentsia-a group comprising musicians, art-
ists, academics, literary figures and critics-was more unified in its response.
It overwhelmingly opposed the anthem, with many well-known figures pledg-
ing to engage in civil disobedience by remaining seated when it was per-
formed.19 Like the liberal politicians, the cultural intelligentsia regarded
Aleksandrov's anthem as a step toward Soviet revanchism and as an affront
to those who suffered under the Soviet regime. Unfettered by any restrictions
of political prudence, however, they expressed themselves even more force-
fully than their representatives in government.
Below I present, with minimal further comment, a number of excerpts
from open letters to President Putin written and signed by several dozen
highly prominent members of the cultural intelligentsia. These quotes illus-
trate their objections to Aleksandrov's melody and hint at the passionate
nature of these objections. I have printed in bold sections that are particu-
larly relevant to the analytical section of this paper that follows.
To once again blare an anthem of Stalinist origin... which is now equipped
with "democratic" words, is a cynical and shameless gibe directed at the long-
suffering ... narod; it is a kind of moral sadomasochism on a national scale.
(Chudakova et al. 2000:21)
The venture to return the music of the former Soviet anthem to national use
arouses in us disgust and protest. ... This melody is one of the most vivid sym
bols of a past epoch. No new text can erase the words that are firmly at
tached to Aleksandrov's music, words that glorify Lenin and Stalin..... Mil-
lions of our fellow citizens will never respect this anthem, which violates their
beliefs and insults the memories of the victims of Soviet political repressions.
("Muzyka" 2000)
We [the members of the Russian PEN Club] have tried to bring to the attention
of the powers-that-be that this "music of totalitarianism," this symbol of an
epoch of violence and terror offends the feelings of many citizens of this coun
try, infringes upon the freedom of their conscience and, in our view, destroy
the fragile societal harmony that existed up until recently. We call on you,
the President of all Russians, and not on the majority or the minority, to re-evalu-
ate the devastating effects of this decision before you sign an order that will surel
estrange [many] Russian citizens and serve for many as a sign that the democratic
transformation of our country is defunct. (Chudakova et al. 2000:34)

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The decision to accept the melody of the Soviet anthem will split soci-
ety into two pieces. While some listened to it with tears of pride in their eyes,
[the performance of the anthem] caused the eyes of others to fill with totally
different tears-from the memory of the monstrous lawlessness created in the
name and at the order of a state, whose ideology has become imprinted in
these words and sounds. (Chudakova et al. 2000:46)
The restoration of the Stalinist anthem doesn't unite society, but rather places a
cross upon [i.e., kills] the younger generation's faith in their elders. During the
past ten years of democracy, Russia has seen the birth of a generation of free
people, for whom the Stalinist regime is the most dark, cruel and shameful pe-
riod in the thousand-year history of the country. No verbal plastering will hide
from the new Russia the sinister essence of the GULAG. The mass graves
at Kolyma and Katyn' will stir at the sound of "thus Stalin has raised us."
(Chudakova et al. 2000:20)
The cultural intelligentsia protested the anthem with vehemence. Their fear
that the new anthem was a harbinger of a future return to authoritarianism
resonated with the questioning attitude many outside Russia had adopted vis-
~i-vis Putin's vision for the country.2( Many of their subsequent statements
argued that Russia's true national identity was connected with its ability to
break with the patterns of Stalinism rather than repeat them. Significantly,
the appearance of the new, politically progressive lyrics did not quell these
critics. My goal in the next sections of this article is to understand why this
was the case.
Re-intoning the New Russian Anthem

Earlier, I gave a brief interpretation of the apparent ideological messag
presented by the lyrics of the "Unbreakable Union" and "Russia, Our H
Power." But if the recent societal uproar has demonstrated anything, it is th
any lyrical analysis that ignores the melody is entirely missing the point.
the lyrics were of primary concern, then replacing Mikhalkov's 1977 text w
his 2000 one would have quieted the criticism or at least redirected it towa
the character of the new lyrics. However, it is clear that those who oppose
the anthem were much more concerned about its melody than its text.
Within this stormy discourse, and despite their divergent positions, both
sides appeared to operate from a number of common assumptions about th
nature of music. First, all parties clearly demonstrated a belief that music
self (as distinguished from lyrics) can serve as a powerful signifier, one whi
is capable of overwhelming the referential potential of the lyrics. Second,
agreed that once signification has been attached to a melody, it cannot
removed completely or with ease. The opposing sides disagreed only abo
the content of that signification. For those in favor of the return of Alek
androv's composition, the melody was infused with profoundly positi

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political and social connotations. (Indeed, if these connotations were in dan-

ger of being superseded entirely by the anthem's new context, there would
be no reason to fight for it.) For the dissenters, on the other hand, the music
is, and, according to their statements, always will be infused with the evils
of a corrupt regime. The disagreement over the anthem's semantic content
demonstrates a third tenet that is a corollary to the second: namely, that
music's meanings are ascribed to it by communities of listeners. While the
rhetoric of the protesters tended toward the absolute (e.g., "no new text can
erase the words that are firmly attached to Aleksandrov's music") the atti-
tude that both camps tacitly assumed was that "music means what I say it
means!": there can be no meaning in music without an audience to gener-
ate it.
Russian musicologists enjoy the interesting luxury of having a single term

that encompasses precisely these three tenets. In his 1947 volume, Musical
Form as Process, Book 2. Intonation, musicologist Boris Asaf ev (1884-1949)
discusses the twin concepts of "intonation" (intonatsiya) and "re-intoning"
(pere-intonirovaniye), both of which subsequently assumed prominent
positions in the discourses of Russian musicologists and ethnomusicologists
alike (Zemtsovsky 1997). Asafev uses the word "intonation" to refer to a
complex and dynamic phenomenon that comprises a musical gesture or
combination of gestures, its performance, and the semantic charge (i.e., the
meaningful content) that the gesture carries. This charge is ascribed to the
musical gesture by the historically situated group of performers and listen-
ers that produce and receive it. The process taking place in today's Russia
resembles Asafev's notion of re-intoning. "in a changed social situation a
musical form has to be intoned differently in addressing new listeners. The
new intonation ... causes a shift in the meaning; but something of the origi-
nal meaning is bound to be retained" (Asafev in Monelle 1992:279, em-
phasis added). This idea runs parallel to a number of recent ethnomusico-
logical writings, from Peter Manuel's extended account of recycled melodies
in India (Manuel 1993:131-52) to Thomas Turino's discussion of "semantic
snowballing" in Zimbabwe (Turino 2000:175).
In Asafev's terms, the pro-anthem camp might argue that the anthem
melody has already been successfully re-intoned by the community of Rus-
sian citizens who have been articulating it since January 2001. This fresh
intonation retains a positive glow of the earlier Soviet-era intonation, an aura
of greatness and history, but it is essentially new in that it trumpets the ide-
als of the 2000 lyrics. The opposition, by contrast, would claim that the
powerful fusion of music and ideology in "Unbreakable Union" cannot be
re-intoned at all as long as those who remember its original context are still
living. In fact, as many of the open letters to the President state, Aleksandrov's
melody continues to be haunted by the words "Stalin has raised us" from the

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original 1944 lyrics (Chudakova et al. 2000:20, 25, 35). Thus, according to
some Russians, the 1977 attempt at re-intoning the anthem for a post-Stalinist
Soviet Union was a failure. Indeed, even some of the anthem supporters agree
that they will hear the old lyrics when they sing the new ones.
The Interaction of Text and Melody

When I first read the quotes of those who claim to hear the Soviet lyrics
even as they are singing the new anthem, I attributed this to the peculiar
power of human memory and to the individuals' desire to remember the old
lyrics, whether to feed their nostalgia or to stand witness to the perceived
evils of the past. After closely examining "Unbreakable Union" and "Russia,
Our Holy Power," however, I suspect that two structural factors contribute
to the "stickiness" of the old lyrics and thus complicate any attempts to re-
intone Aleksandrov's melody. First, despite the fundamental differences of
their surface ideological messages, the lyrics to "Russia, Our Holy Power"
evoke the lyrics of "Unbreakable Union" on the lexical level. All of the cen-
tral terms that are present two or more times (and thus emphasized) in "Un-
breakable Union" can be found in the new lyrics: "union" (soyuz), "freedom"
(svoboda), "fatherland" (otechestvo/otchizna), and the ubiquitous "nation/
folk/people" (narod). If we bracket the obligatory references to Lenin and
communism in the 1977 version, we can say that this collection of semanti-
cally loaded terms forms the conceptual foundation of both the Soviet lyrics
and the new lyrics. Two words here are particularly evocative of the old
anthem. The word for "union" (soyuz) is familiar to all in its original context,
as one half of "Soviet Union" (Sovetskii Soyuz). Also, one of the words for
"fatherland" (otchizna) is archaic, and is rarely seen in contemporary Rus-
sian outside the context of the Soviet anthem. Although the new lyrics os-
tensibly describe a different "union" and a new post-Soviet "fatherland," the
Soviet history of this collection of words is hard to ignore. Nowhere is this
effect more apparent than in the first line of the new refrain, "Glory to our
free fatherland," which is copied verbatim from "Unbreakable Union."
Additionally, the way the new lyrics align with the melodic contour of
Aleksandrov's composition contributes to the evocation of the old anthem.
This problem is best illustrated at the climax of the refrain, the moment when
the old lyrics seem to adhere most stubbornly to Aleksandrov's notes. The
anthem's musical peak arrives with a cymbal crash on the heels of a dramatic
crescendo over eight beats. The melodic climax that follows is signaled by
the piece's loudest, longest, highest-pitched note, which initiates an extended
progression to the final cadence.21 In Mikhalkov's 1977 text, the anthem's
musical climax coincides with the words "the Party of Lenin" (Partiya
Lenina)-arguably the most important two words in the lyrics. They con-

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stitute the nominative subject of a phrase that crystallizes the message of all
three verses. This phrase, which begins at the climax and continues to the
final cadence six bars later, sums up the official Soviet ideology perfectly:
"The Party of Lenin, the strength of the people, will lead us to communism's
triumph." The power of this musical moment is generated in part by the fact
that the textual and musical climaxes exactly coincide.
In "Russia, Our Holy Power," by contrast, the musical climax is accom-
panied by the first part of a subordinate clause in the instrumental case: "by
our ancestors given" (predkami dannaya). Making allowances for the Rus-
sian language's flexible word order, we can translate the full phrase as, "the
people's wisdom, given by our ancestors" (predkami dannaya mudrost'
narodnaya). This cryptic phrase, which technically constitutes a sentence
fragment, has been criticized in the press as "filler," and "nonsensical"; one
critic stated that the phrase "the people's wisdom" "begs for alteration" (Il'in
2001). He may have been referring to the easy act of textual vandalism that
could be achieved by replacing the word mudrost' (wisdom) with its rhym-
ing partner, glupost' (stupidity), thus creating the sarcastic message, "the
people's stupidity, given by our ancestors." For these reasons, it appears safe
to predict that the strong phrase "Party of Lenin, strength of the people, will
lead us to communism's triumph" will not be easily erased by the awkward
"the people's wisdom, given by our ancestors. Glory to the country. We are
proud of you!"
Conclusion
Over the last twenty years or so, ethnomusicologists have proven

successful at demonstrating how music can serve as a vehicle for
and how that meaning is determined by historically situated communi
thus subject to change over time. Moreover, in our postmodern world
floating signifiers, examples abound of the ease with which musical w
can be appropriated and resignified, both cross-culturally and within
community. Asaf'ev's concepts remind us that musical gestures often
traces of the meaning that was originally ascribed to them. The prese
demonstrates that, for some communities at least, these traces can be
enough to prevent re-intonation altogether.
My brief musical analysis suggests that the structural weakness in
fusion of melody and lyrics in "Russia, Our Holy Power" (which sets
in stark contrast with the more artfully fused "Unbreakable Union")
one of the factors inhibiting its re-intonation. The ethnographic sect
this paper suggests another factor: the fundamental ideological fault
runs between the political majority and the cultural elite in conte
Russia. By documenting these clashing positions, I hope to have d

129.2.19.102 on Fri, 02 Oct 2020 01:45:59 UTC
strated the extent to which the anthem is not a static reflection of Russian
national identity but rather a fluid and polysemous text, subject to multiple,
conflicting readings. Russian national identity is currently being negotiated
through these readings. The cultural intelligentsia's interpretation of the
anthem constituted the most vocal and passionate criticism of the Soviet
period, and consequently the most emphatic support of Russia's fledgling
democracy, in years. At the same time, the overwhelming support of the
anthem by the government and a plurality of Russia's 146 million citizens is
powerful evidence of a widespread nostalgia for the Soviet period, and proof
of Putin's political mandate. Under these volatile conditions, the future of
the new anthem is unclear. As of this writing, a recording of the new anthem
is broadcast every day at 6:00 a.m. and midnight on government radio and
television stations; the process of re-intoning the anthem through repetition
in a new context has begun. Further ethnographic work will be necessary
to determine the degree to which this process is successful.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Timothy Rice for his insightful comments on and criti-
cism of earlier drafts of this article. Izaly Zemtsovsky has shown great patience
in discussing with me the Russian concepts that I employ here, for which I
am particularly grateful. I would also like to thank Philip Bohlman, Emily
Daughtry, Nancy Guy, Bruno Nettl, A. Jihad Racy, Helen Rees, and Tony
Seeger for their valuable comments and encouragement during various stages
of the writing process.
Notes
1. The federal law regarding the anthem and a copy of the official piano reduction
found on the Russian government's website: http://www.gov.ru/main/symbols/gsrf4_ 1.h
May 2002).
2. The anthem law was part of a legislative packet that also confirmed the Russian tri
as the state flag, the double-headed eagle as the state emblem, and reintroduced the Sov
tory flag" (the red banner without the hammer and sickle that was raised over the Reichs
the end of World War II) as the flag of the Russian armed forces. Due to space limitations
not discuss these other state symbols here, except to say that they were all much less
versial than the anthem.
3. In the months since this article was written, the independent network, NTV, was sub-
ject to a hostile takeover by Gazprom, a powerful government-dominated corporation. Gazprom
ousted the board of directors, installing a new board of company loyalists. As a result, the net-
work lost a large degree of its autonomy, and a number of journalists, including Yevgeny
Kiselyov, the anchor of "Itogi," moved to the last remaining independent network, TV6, in pro-
test. In January 2002, this network too was liquidated. Critics of President Putin's administra-
tion read these events as evidence of Putin's desire to reinstate Soviet-era control over the press.
For these critics, as this article discusses below, the appearance of "Unbreakable Union" was
further proof of Putin's revanchist intentions.

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4. I have collected over a hundred articles from the Russian and Anglophone press, writ-
ten in anticipation of and reaction to the rehabilitation of the Soviet melody and the new lyrics.
In addition, I have monitored a number of personal webpages that discuss the event, and col-
lected over a dozen open letters, addressed to President Putin or the Parliament and signed by
prominent Russian citizens. (Many of the open letters and press articles were subsequently
published in Chudakova et al. 2000.)
5. Of course, I do not mean to imply that everyone in Russia was a member of one camp
or another; apathy and ironic laughter were not uncommon reactions to the anthem change, if
my Russian friends are at all representative. For the purposes of this analysis, however, the data
have forced me to abandon my distrust of binary oppositions and acknowledge that the conflict
itself was essentially two-sided.
6. In the 1990s, for example, the journal Ethnomusicology published about twenty articles
focusing on music and nationalism. Many of these works have used nationalism as a framing
device in studies of the popular music of a particular region (e.g., Meintjes 1990; Waterman 1990;
Averill 1994; Manuel 1994). Others have explored nationalism's relevance in the discourse sur-
rounding traditional or "folk" music styles (Yang 1994; Buchanan 1995; Davis 1997; Goertzen
1998; Scruggs 1999; Sugarman 1999). Discussions of nationalism can also be found in recent
dissertations and books on traditional and/or popular musics by Donna Buchanan (1991), Timo-
thy Rice (1994), Christopher Goertzen (1997), Helen Rees (2000) and Thomas Turino (2000).
7. See Nettl 1995 for an exception to this statement.
8. According to Boyd, exceptions to this model are relatively rare: " [f]or anthems indepen-
dent of the European tradition one must look mainly to Eastern countries such as Myanmar,
Japan, Tibet and Sri Lanka, whose anthems rely strongly on folk music and sometimes call for
indigenous instruments and are accompanied by formal gestures" (2001:655).
9. For example, over seventy of the world's extant national anthems begin with an ascend-
ing perfect fourth from dominant to tonic. Both the current Russian anthem and the
"Internationale" begin in this manner.
10. In the twentieth-century history of national anthems in Russia, only one example of
specific musical nationalism has been seriously considered. In 1917, after the tsar had been
overthrown but before the Bolsheviks came to power, the leadership of the Provisional Gov-
ernment suggested that an arrangement of "Ey ukhnem" (the "Song of the Volga Boatmen") be
designated the national anthem. This proposal was still on the table when the Bolsheviks tri-
umphed in the October Revolution. They quickly designated a Russian-language version of the
"Internationale" as the national anthem of the newly-formed Soviet Union.
11. Works on national anthems from both sides of the disciplinary fence include two major
compendia (Nettl 1967; Reed and Bristow 1993); a substantial number of individual anthem his-
tories (e.g., Sonneck 1914; Aguilera 1958); articles by Mach (1994), Byerly (1998), and Guy
(2002); and Boyd's recent entry in the revised New Grove Dictionary (2001). While hardly
inconsequential, this body of scholarship is dwarfed by the combined works on specific nation-
alism by musicologists and works on nationalism in oral and popular musics by ethnomusi-
cologists.
12. Unless otherwise noted, I have translated all of the Russian sources that appear in this
paper (e.g., the anthem lyrics, open letters, and quotations from Russian scholarly works, the
Russian government, and the Russian press).
13. Recordings of "Unbreakable Union" and the "Internationale" can be found at the Skazka,
Russian Society of Trondheim website: http://www.skazka.no/anthems (13 November 2002).
A note on transliteration: Throughout the body of this article and in the references, I have used
a modified version of the Library of Congress transliteration system that, while not exactly stan-
dard, maintains a consistent correlation to the letters of the Russian alphabet, thus enabling
Russian speakers to reconstruct the original. When transliterating the various anthem lyrics,
however, I felt that the need to convey their pronunciation outweighed the need for graphic
accuracy. I therefore have used a radically simplified system that is geared to give non-Russian
speakers a rough idea of the sound of the words. This system is basically phonetic, with the

129.2.19.102 on Fri, 02 Oct 2020 01:45:59 UTC
following exceptions: when the letter "o" is stressed ("6") it sounds somewhat like the long
"o" in "oath." If it is unstressed, its sound is somewhere between the "o" in "bother" and the
"o" in "other." Also, the letter "e" is pronounced roughly like the "ye" in "yellow." The letter
"y," when combined with another vowel, acts like the "y" in "you." When alone, it sounds some-
what like the "i" in "sit" would if placed farther back in the throat.
14. Yeltsin was elected speaker of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Republic in May 1990.
On June 12, 1990, he was elected president of the Russian Republic, which at that point was a
sovereign member of the Soviet Union. In December 1991, after the Union was dissolved in
the wake of a failed coup, Yeltsin was automatically made president of the newly-formed Rus-
sian Federation. For an excellent history of the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the for-
mation of the post-Soviet states, see Suny 1997.
15. A recording of "Patriotic Song" can be found at the Skazka, Russian Society of
Trondheim website: http://www.skazka.no/anthems (20 May 2002).
16. This position is weakened slightly by the fact that, as of 1993, the following seven
countries had wordless national anthems: Kuwait, Mauritania, Qatar, San Marino, Somalia, Spain,
and the United Arab Emirates (Reed and Bristow 1993).
17. Several Russian critics have argued that Pavel' Ovsyannikov's official arrangement of
"Russia, Our Holy Power" is bombastic and in bad taste. Indeed, the differences between
Ovsyannikov's arrangement and Aleksandrov's arrangement of "Unbreakable Union" are strik-
ing. They would make an interesting subject for a comparative study along the lines of Nancy
Guy's (2002), which treats individual performances of the Taiwanese anthem as separate "ut-
terances," in Bakhtin's sense. For the purposes of this paper, however, I have chosen not to
deal with the differences in arrangements, as most of the public debate of the new anthem's
merits took place before "Russia, Our Holy Power" was ever performed. A recording of "Rus-
sia, Our Holy Power" can be found at the official website of the Russian Federation Administra-
tive Bodies: http://www.gov.ru:8104/main/symbols/gsrf4_5.html (20 May 2002).
18. These lyrics were apparently composed by an SPS Party member, one S. Sidorov. In
addition to Sidorov's satirical lyrics, former Prime Minister Yevgeny Primakov submitted a more
serious set that he composed. Outside the Parliament, private citizens have flooded the Internet
with proposed lyrics. I have collected over forty verses set to Aleksandrov's melody, the most
recent of which was posted on the Internet on May 10, 2001.
19. The cultural intelligentsia's unity was not absolute: on December 6, 2000, a group of
fourteen cultural figures of modest stature wrote an open letter to the Parliament in support of
the return of Aleksandrov's anthem. The authors called the decision "very timely" and acknowl-
edged that "it would be naive to think that there is a decision that would please everyone"
("Chetyrnadtsat"' 2000). In addition, prominent filmmaker Nikita Mikhalkov, son of Sergei
Mikhalkov, announced that he supported his father's lyrics. However, it is clear that the vast
majority of the intelligentsia opposed the decision.
20. See for example Paul Goble's analysis for Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty: http://
www.rferl.org/nca/features/2000/12/06122000171720.as (6 December 2000) and the follow-
ing article in the Time Europe Daily: http://www.time.com/time/europe/webonly/europe/
2000/12/anthem.html (20 May 2002). Many in the Western mainstream press appeared more
amused than alarmed with the anthem crisis. See for example this article by CNN: http://
www.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/europe/08/02/russia.anthem/ (20 May 2002).
21. For a multimedia example illustrating the musical peak of "Unbreakable Union" and "Rus-
sia, Our Holy Power," please see Ethnomusicology's webpage: http://www.ethnomusicology. org.
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Daughtry - Russia's New Anthem and The Negotiation of National Identity

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Russia's New Anthem and the Negotiation of National Identity

Author(s): J. Martin Daughtry

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/852511

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Russia's New Anthem and the

Old Melody, New Anthem

? 2003 by the Society for Ethnomusicology

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The movement to reinstate the Soviet anthem melody sparked a range

Musical Nationalism and National Anthems

Musical expressions of nationalism have emerged as a central ar

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within precomposed orchestral works that employ European tonal conven-

roughly equivalent in scope to the species and genus categories of scientific

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native to the anthem-as-hymn model is the anthem-as-march exemplified by

Performance and Affect

Within this tradition, anthems can be distinguished from other cultur

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The heat that anthems generate is often so valued by state authorities

The Origin of "Unbreakable Union"

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Figure 1. Lyrics of the 1944 version of "Unbreakable Union."

1 An unbreakable union of free republics Soyuz nerushimy respublik svob6dnyk

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Party, while Aleksandrov's composition, with Mikhalkov and El'-Registan's

Union" provides us with a snapshot of his personal negotiation between

A Change in Lyrics and in Ideology: "Unbreakable Union"

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# 1977 Version 1944 Version lines that were changed

1 An unbreakable union of free republics

9 The sun of freedom glowed through the storm,

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co-author of the original lyrics, Sergei Mikhalkov, completed work on a re-

A New Anthem for a New Nation: Glinka's "Patriotic Song"

That a work by Glinka should be chosen surprised no one. The historica

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Aleksandrov's melody (minus the Soviet lyrics, of course). The ir

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Figure 3. Lyrics to "Russia, Our Holy Power."

1 Russia, our holy power, Rossfya svyashbnnaya ndsha derzbdva

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The December 2000 Discourse on a New Russian

The cursory history above demonstrates the extent to which nati

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Recently, particularly heated discussions have surrounded the anthem, the

Putin's speech was a finely crafted piece of persuasive rhetoric. In equating

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Figure 4. SPS Party's proposed lyrics for the Russian anthem.18

11 Our rights and f

20 We will be selflessly faithful! My bzudem vsegdd bezzavgtno vernf.!

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The Cultural Intelligentsia

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Re-intoning the New Russian Anthem

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political and social connotations. (Indeed, if these connotations were in dan-

Russian musicologists enjoy the interesting luxury of having a single term