Spacecraft Dynamics and Control

Matthew M. Peet
Arizona State University

Lecture 8: Impulsive Orbital Maneuvers

Introduction

In this Lecture, you will learn:

Coplanar Orbital Maneuvers

• Impulsive Maneuvers
I ∆v
• Single Burn Maneuvers
• Hohmann transfers
I Elliptic
I Circular

Numerical Problem: Suppose we are in a circular parking orbit at an altitude

of 191.34km and we want to raise our altitude to 35,781km. Describe the
required orbital maneuvers (time and ∆v).

M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 2 / 25

Changing Orbits

Suppose we have designed our ideal orbit.

• We have chosen ad , ed , id , Ωd , ωd
• We are currently in orbit a0 , e0 , i0 , Ω0 , ω0
I Determined from current position ~r and
velocity ~v .
Question:
• How to get from current orbit to desired
orbit?
• What tools can we use?
• What are the constraints?
Unchanged, the object will remain in initial orbit indefinitely.

M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 3 / 25

 Changing Orbits
Lecture 8
2020-02-20 Spacecraft Dynamics Suppose we have designed our ideal orbit.
• We have chosen ad , ed , id , Ωd , ωd
• We are currently in orbit a0 , e0 , i0 , Ω0 , ω0
I Determined from current position ~r and
velocity ~v .
Question:
• How to get from current orbit to desired
Changing Orbits orbit?
• What tools can we use?
• What are the constraints?
Unchanged, the object will remain in initial orbit indefinitely.

• For now, we don’t care about f (time)

– Lambert’s Problem
– Can correct using phasing
• Don’t care about efficiency
• true anomaly (f ) determines phasing within the orbit and is easily altered
post-insertion.
How to create a ∆v
∆v is our tool for changing orbits

Velocity change is caused by thrust.

• For constant thrust, F ,

F
v(t) = v(0) + ∆t
m
• for a desired ∆v, the time needed is

m∆v
∆t =
F
We assume ∆t and ∆~r are negligible for a ∆v.
• No continuous thrust transfers
• Although these are increasingly
important.
The change in position is
m∆v 2
∆~r(t) =
F
M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 4 / 25
∆V moves the vacant focus of the orbit
Orbit maneuvers are made through changes in velocity.

• ~r and ~v determine orbital elements.

• Our first constraint is continuity.
I New orbit must also pass through ~r.
I Cannot jump from one orbit to another instantly
I If the current and target orbit don’t intersect, a transfer orbit is required.
M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 5 / 25
What can we do with a ∆v Maneuver?

∆v refers to the difference between the initial and final velocity vectors.

A ∆v maneuver can:
• Raise/lower the apogee/perigee
• A change in inclination
• Escape
• Reduction/Increase in period
• Change in RAAN
• Begin a 2+ maneuver sequence of
burns.
I Creates a Transfer Orbit.

We’ll start by talking about coplanar maneuvers.

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 What can we do with a ∆v Maneuver?
Lecture 8 ∆v refers to the difference between the initial and final velocity vectors.

2020-02-20 Spacecraft Dynamics A ∆v maneuver can:

• Raise/lower the apogee/perigee
• A change in inclination
• Escape
• Reduction/Increase in period
• Change in RAAN
What can we do with a ∆v Maneuver? • Begin a 2+ maneuver sequence of
burns.
I Creates a Transfer Orbit.

We’ll start by talking about coplanar maneuvers.

• Raise/lower the apogee/perigee is performed at perigee/apogee

• A change in inclination is usually performed at the equatorial plane (any
inclination achievable from this point).
• changes in period are often done for phase changes.
• Change in RAAN should be done as far from equatorial plane as possible.
 Single Burn Coplanar Maneuvers
Apogee or Perigee raising or lowering.

Definition 1.
Coplanar Maneuvers are those which do not alter i or Ω.

Example: Simple Tangential Burn

• For maximum efficiency, a burn must occur at 0◦ flight path angle
I ṙ = 0
• Tangential burns can occur at perigee and apogee
M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 7 / 25
 Example: Insertion into a Parking Orbit
A perigee raising maneuver

Suppose we launch from the surface of the earth.

• This creates an initial elliptic orbit which will re-enter.
• To circularize the orbit, we plan on using a burn at apogee.

Problem: We are given a and e of the initial elliptic orbit. Calculate the ∆v
required at apogee to circularize the orbit.
M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 8 / 25
 Example: Insertion into a Parking Orbit
A perigee raising maneuver

Calculating the ∆v: To raise the perigee, we burn at apogee. At apogee, we

have that
ra0 = a0 (1 + e0 )
From the vis-viva equation, we can calculate the velocity at apogee.
s   s  
2 1 µ 1 − e0
va0 = µ − =
ra0 a0 a 0 1 + e0
Our target orbit is circular with radius rd = ad = ra0 . The velocity of the target
orbit is constant at r r
µ µ
vc = =
ra a(1 + e)
Therefore, the ∆v required to circularize the orbit is
s  
µ 1 − e0
r
µ
∆v = vc − va0 = −
a0 (1 + e0 ) a0 1 + e0
• It is unusual to launch directly into the desired orbit. Instead we use the
parking orbit while waiting for more complicated orbital maneuvers.
M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 9 / 25
 Given a Desired Transfer Orbit
How to calculate the ∆v’s?

Lets generalize the parking orbit example to the case of a transfer orbit.

Definition 2.
• The Initial Orbit is the orbit we want to leave.
• The Target Orbit is the orbit we want to achieve.
• The Transfer Orbit is an orbit which intersects both the initial orbit and
target orbit.

Step 1: Design a transfer orbit (a,e,i, etc.).

Step 2: Calculate ~vtr,1 at the point of
intersection with initial orbit.
Step 3: Calculate initial burn to maneuver into
transfer orbit.

∆v1 = ~vtr,1 − ~vinit

M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 10 / 25

 Given a Desired Transfer Orbit
Lecture 8 How to calculate the ∆v’s?

Lets generalize the parking orbit example to the case of a transfer orbit.

2020-02-20 Spacecraft Dynamics Definition 2.

• The Initial Orbit is the orbit we want to leave.
• The Target Orbit is the orbit we want to achieve.
• The Transfer Orbit is an orbit which intersects both the initial orbit and
target orbit.

Given a Desired Transfer Orbit Step 1: Design a transfer orbit (a,e,i, etc.).
Step 2: Calculate ~vtr,1 at the point of
intersection with initial orbit.
Step 3: Calculate initial burn to maneuver into
transfer orbit.

∆v1 = ~vtr,1 − ~vinit

• Note that in the illustration, the transfer orbit is not a Hohman transfer,
which is the most common type of transfer orbit.
Coplanar Two-Impulse Orbit Transfers

Step 4: Calculate ~vtr,2 at the point of intersection with target orbit.

Step 5: Calculate velocity of the target orbit, ~vf in , at the point of intersection
with transfer orbit.
Step 6: Calculate the final burn to maneuver into target orbit.
∆v2 = ~vf in − ~vtr,2
M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 11 / 25
The Choice of Transfer Orbit

Constraints:
• The transfer orbit must intersect both current and target orbit
• The ∆v’s for entering transfer and orbital insertion are limited by ∆v
budget
I Typically limits us to elliptic transfers.
• There may be constraints on elapsed time.
M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 12 / 25
 The Choice of Transfer Orbit
Lecture 8
2020-02-20 Spacecraft Dynamics

The Choice of Transfer Orbit Constraints:

• The transfer orbit must intersect both current and target orbit
• The ∆v’s for entering transfer and orbital insertion are limited by ∆v
budget
I Typically limits us to elliptic transfers.
• There may be constraints on elapsed time.

The image is of an unproven conjecture that the most efficient 2-burn transfer
between 2 coplanar orbits always uses a tangential burn.
• Feel free to find a counterexample!
• Use a brute force search approach using Lambert’s problem to calculate
∆v 0 s
 The Choice of Transfer Orbit
Continuity Constraints affect range of a and e

There are many orbits which intersect both the initial and target orbits.
However, there are some constraints.

Consider
• Circular initial orbit of radius r1
• Circular target orbit of radius r2 > r1
Obviously, the transfer orbit must satisfy
p
rp = ≤ r1
1+e
and
p
ra = ≥ r2
1−e

M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 13 / 25

 The Choice of Transfer Orbit
Lecture 8 Continuity Constraints affect range of a and e

There are many orbits which intersect both the initial and target orbits.

2020-02-20 Spacecraft Dynamics However, there are some constraints.

Consider
• Circular initial orbit of radius r1
• Circular target orbit of radius r2 > r1
Obviously, the transfer orbit must satisfy

The Choice of Transfer Orbit rp =

p
1+e
≤ r1

and
p
ra = ≥ r2
1−e

• The rp constraint says the transfer orbit must intersect the initial orbit.
• The ra constraint says the transfer orbit must intersect the target orbit.
• The plot illustrates the range of realizable p and e for given initial and
target radii
• The lines represent
p
p ≥ r2 (1 − e) ↔ e>1−
r2
and
p
p < r1 (1 + e) ↔ e> −1
r1
Transfer Orbits in Fixed Time
Constraints on Transfer Time

Occasionally, we want to arrive at

• A certain point in the target orbit, ~r2
• at a certain time, tf
Finding the necessary transfer orbit is Lambert’s Problem.

Primary Applications are:

• Targeting
• Rendez-vous

We will come back to the section on

Lambert’s problem.

M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 14 / 25

Constraints on ∆v budget
What is a minimum energy transfer orbit?

The critical resource in space travel is

∆v.
• The ∆v budget is fixed at takeoff.
• Refueling is not usually possible.
• If you run out of ∆v, bad things
happen.

∆v can increase or decrease the energy of an orbit.

• The energy difference between 2 orbits must come from somewhere.
µ µ
∆Emin = − +
2a2 2a1
• The closer Ecost is to Emin , the more efficient the transfer
• ∆v does not translate directly to Energy changes, however.
• More on this effect later
M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 15 / 25
 Constraints on ∆v budget
Lecture 8 What is a minimum energy transfer orbit?

The critical resource in space travel is

∆v.

2020-02-20 Spacecraft Dynamics • The ∆v budget is fixed at takeoff.

• Refueling is not usually possible.
• If you run out of ∆v, bad things
happen.

Constraints on ∆v budget ∆v can increase or decrease the energy of an orbit.

• The energy difference between 2 orbits must come from somewhere.
µ µ
∆Emin = − +
2a2 2a1
• The closer Ecost is to Emin , the more efficient the transfer
• ∆v does not translate directly to Energy changes, however.
• More on this effect later

• The energy GAIN for each ∆v is actually larger - depending on the initial
velocity. We will discuss this more carefully next lecture.
∆v 2
• Note energy is NOT conserved here, so 2
6= ∆Emin .
 The Hohmann Transfer
A Minimum Energy Orbit?

The Hohmann transfer is the energy-optimal two burn maneuver between any
two coaxial elliptic orbits.

• Proposed by Hohmann (1925)

I Why?
• Proven for circular target orbits by Lawden (1952)
• Proven for coaxial elliptical initial and target orbits by Thompson (1986)
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 The Hohmann Transfer
Lecture 8 A Minimum Energy Orbit?

The Hohmann transfer is the energy-optimal two burn maneuver between any
two coaxial elliptic orbits.

2020-02-20 Spacecraft Dynamics

The Hohmann Transfer

• Proposed by Hohmann (1925)
I Why?
• Proven for circular target orbits by Lawden (1952)
• Proven for coaxial elliptical initial and target orbits by Thompson (1986)

• Published in “Die Erreichbarkeit der Himmelskörper (The Attainability of

Celestial Bodies)” (1925) [PDF Available Here]
• Did not participate in Nazi rocket program.
• Died of hunger after allied bombardment of Essen
• Optimality was originally a conjecture.
The Hohmann Transfer
We will first consider the circular case.

Theorem 3 (The Hohmann Conjecture).

The energy-optimal transfer orbit between two circular orbits of radii r1 and r2
is an elliptic orbit with
rp = r1 and ra = r2

This yields the orbital elements of the transfer orbit (a, e) as

ra + rp r1 + r2 rp r2 − r1
a= = and e=1− =
2 2 a r2 + r1
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The Hohmann Transfer
To calculate the required ∆v1 and ∆v2 , the initial velocity is the velocity of a
circular orbit of radius r1 r
µ
vinit =
r1
The required initial velocity is that of the transfer orbit at perigee. From the
vis-viva equation,
r r r
2µ µ p 1 1 r2
vtrans,p = − = 2µ − = 2µ
r1 a r1 r1 + r2 r1 (r1 + r2 )
So the initial ∆v1 is
r r r s !
r2 µ µ 2r2
∆v1 = vtrans,p − vinit = 2µ − = −1
r1 (r1 + r2 ) r1 r1 (r1 + r2 )

The velocity of the transfer orbit at apogee is

r r
2µ µ r1
vtrans,a = − = 2µ
r2 a r2 (r1 + r2 )

M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 18 / 25

The Hohmann Transfer
The required velocity for a circular orbit at apogee is
r
µ
vf in =
r2

So the final ∆v2 is

r r r s !
µ r1 µ 2r1
∆v2 = vf in − vtrans,a = − 2µ = 1−
r2 r2 (r1 + r2 ) r2 (r1 + r2 )

Thus we conclude to raise a circular orbit from radius r1 to radius r2 , we use

r s !
µ 2r2
∆v1 = −1
r1 (r1 + r2 )
r s !
µ 2r1
∆v2 = 1−
r2 (r1 + r2 )

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Hohmann Transfer Illustration

M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 20 / 25

The Hohmann Transfer
Transfer Time

The Hohmann transfer is optimal

• Only for impulsive transfers
I Continuous Thrust is not considered
• Only for two impulse transfers
I A three impulse transfer can be better
I Bi-elliptics are better
The transfer time is simply half the period of
the orbit. Hence
s
τ a3
∆t = = π
2 µ
s
(r1 + r2 )3
=π
8µ
The Hohmann transfer is also the Maximum Time 2-impulse Transfer.
• Always a tradeoff between time and efficiency
• Bielliptic Transfers extend this tradeoff.
M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 21 / 25
 The Hohmann Transfer
Lecture 8 Transfer Time

The Hohmann transfer is optimal

• Only for impulsive transfers

2020-02-20 Spacecraft Dynamics I Continuous Thrust is not considered

• Only for two impulse transfers
I A three impulse transfer can be better
I Bi-elliptics are better
The transfer time is simply half the period of
the orbit. Hence

The Hohmann Transfer

s
τ a3
∆t = = π
2 µ
s
(r1 + r2 )3
=π
8µ
The Hohmann transfer is also the Maximum Time 2-impulse Transfer.
• Always a tradeoff between time and efficiency
• Bielliptic Transfers extend this tradeoff.

• The slowest part of the orbit is at apogee.

• Due to Oberth effect, you want to use as much ∆v budget as possible at
low altitude. Bi-elliptics use this to further reduce ∆v at apogee (Next
Lecture)
• Hohmann transfer to GEO is extremely wasteful!
Numerical Example (Parking Orbit to GEO)
Problem: Suppose we are in a circular parking orbit at an altitude of 191.34km
and we want to raise our altitude to 35,781km. Describe the required orbital
maneuvers (time and ∆v).
Solution: We will use a Hohmann transfer between circular orbits of
r1 = 191.35km + 1ER = 1.03ER and r2 = 35781km + 1ER = 6.61ER
The initial velocity is
r
µ ER
vi = = .985
r1 TU

r1 +r2
The transfer ellipse has a = 2 = 3.82ER. The velocity at perigee is
r
2µ µ ER
vtrans,1 = − = 1.296
r1 a TU
Thus the initial ∆v is ∆v1 = 1.296 − .985 = .315 ER
TU .
M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 22 / 25
Numerical Example

The velocity at apogee is

r
2µ µ ER
vtrans,1 = − = .202
r2 a TU
However, the required velocity for a circular
orbit at radius r2 is
r
µ ER
vf = = .389
r2 TU
Thus the final ∆v is ∆v2 = .389 − .202 = .182 ER
T U . The second ∆v maneuver
should be made at time
s
a3
tf in = π = 23.45T U = 5.256hr
µ

The total ∆v budget is .497ER/T U .

M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 23 / 25

The Elliptic Hohmann Transfer
The Hohmann transfer is also energy optimal for coaxial elliptic orbits.

The only ambiguity is whether to make the initial burn at perigee or apogee.
• Need to check both cases
• Often better to make initial burn at perigee
I Due to Oberth Effect
M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 24 / 25
Summary

This Lecture you have learned:

Coplanar Orbital Maneuvers

• Impulsive Maneuvers
I ∆v
• Single Burn Maneuvers
• Hohmann transfers
I Elliptic
I Circular

Next Lecture: Oberth Effect, Bi-elliptics, Out-of-plane maneuvers.

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