Office Automation: All tools and methods that are applied to office activities which make it

possible to process written, visual, and sound data in a computer-aided manner.

OBJECTIVES:
• Paperless work environment
• Optimal utilization of resources
• Better information sharing and transparency
• Enhanced security and recovery of data
Advantages:
• Increases efficiency
• Less time consuming
• Less paper needed
• Faster decision making
• Ease of use
• Better security
Disadvantages:
• Make employee lazy
• Eye strains
• Back pain
• Older staff members may have a harder time adjusting to new technology and be unable
to use it efficiently
What is the Need?

Booting process:
Starting a computer is called booting.

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Booting Process:

The first process starting when you turn on your computer is BIOS i.e., Basic Input Output
System. BIOS has two functions, to conduct POST and read MBR.

POST: POST stands for Power On Self-Test. POST checks all the hardware devices connected
to a computer like RAM, hard disk etc. and make sure that the system can run smoothly with
those hardware devices. If the POST is a failure the system halts with a beep sound.

Now BIOS checks the boot priority. We can set the boot priority as CD drive, hard disk or floppy
drive.

MBR: The next duty of BIOS is to read the MBR. MBR stands for Master Boot Record and it’s
the first sector on a hard disk. MBR contains the partition table and boot loader.

Functions of Boot loader: Now BIOS has passed the control to boot loader and boot loader is a
small program which loads kernel to computers memory. Actually there are two stages of boot
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loaders, stage 1 boot loader and stage 2 boot loader. MBR contains the stage 1 boot loader and
stage 1 boot loader is a link to the stage 2 boot loader. The stage 2 boot loader resides in the boot
partition and it loads the kernel to memory.

Boot files and functions: Several steps like POST, boot files loading, MBR reading, Kernel
initialization etc. are happening during the booting procedure of a Windows machine. Read more
details about these Windows booting procedures from here
There are three boot files in a Windows operating system and they are NTLDR,
NTDETECT.COM and Boot.ini. The boot files are found in the active partition of hard disk and
its normally C drive in a Windows machine

NTLDR: NTLDR stands for NT Loader and its the second stage boot loader. The path of
NTLDR is C:\Windows\i386\NTLDR.
Boot.ini: Boot.ini contains the configuration files of NTLDR. When the operating system is
loaded we cannot pass any arguments to kernel, so those arguments are passed through boot.ini.
You can edit boot.ini by opening through notepad. The path of Boot.ini is C:\boot.ini.

NTDETECT.COM: This file detect hardware's and passes information to NTLDR. Using the
collected information the NTLDR creates a hardware key and this key is used to detect
hardware's. A new hardware key is generated after each reboot of the operating system and that's
why system asks to reboot after installation of a new hardware. The hardware keys created by
NTLDR can be found in Windows registry at HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE -> HARDWARES.

Kernel and its functions

After executing the functions of boot files the control is passed to Kernel. ntoskrnal.exe is the
kernel file in a Windows machine and its path is C:\Windows\system 32\ntoskrnal.exe. Kernel
acts as a layer between software and hardware. The library file hal.dll
(C;\Windows\system32\hal.dll) helps Kernel to interact with hardware's. HAL stands for
Hardware Abstraction Layer and this hal.dll file is machine specific. Now the drivers for
hardware's are loaded from the file C:\Windows\system32\config\system and the Kernel is
loaded to primary memory.

Low level Vs high level language

1) Platform Dependencies

First, you should know about the platform, here platform means Computer Hardware (Computer
configuration).

Low Level programming languages are platform dependent that means programs written in Low
Level language can run on the same hardware with same configuration, you cannot run them on
hardware that has different configuration.

High Level programming languages are platform independent that means programs written in
High Level language can run on different hardware with different configuration.

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Remember: High Level programming languages are platform independent that doesn’t mean
they are operating system independent. System hardware configuration may be different but
Operating systems should be same.

2) Speed

Low Level language programs are faster than High Level language programs as they do not need
to convert.

They have less number of syntaxes, functions, keywords, class libraries.

3) Easiness

Low Level language programs are not as easy as High Level language. There are only two Low
Level programming languages Binary and Assembly. Binary has only 0’s, 1’s, while Assembly
has some difficult type symbols which are knows as mnemonics.

But, the High Level languages programs are easy to write, read, modify and understand.

4) Performance

Since, Low Level Languages programs are faster, so performance of Low Level languages
programs are better than the High Level languages programs.

Assembler

Assembler (computing), a computer program which translates assembly language to an object

file or machine language format.

1. It translates the mnemonic codes such as PRN, ADD and SUB etc. to machine language code.
It translates the high-level language to assembly language.

2. The program, which executes using assembler, executes faster because it directly converts the
source code in machine language.

Compiler

A compiler is a computer program (or a set of programs) that transforms source code written in a
programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the target
language), with the latter often having a binary form known as object code.

It translates the high-level language to assembly language.

It takes the time to execute a program because it first translates the source code into another
compiler’s
language and then using assembler converts it into machine language.

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Interpreter

An interpreter is a computer program that directly executes, i.e. performs instructions written in a
programming or scripting language, without previously compiling them into a machine language
program.

No object code is saved for future use.

Time-consuming translation method.

Interpreter is easy to write and do not require large memory space in the computer.

Speed is very slow.

Any change in source program during the translation does not require retranslation of the entire
code.

Network Topology:
Topology is the geometric arrangement of devices on the network. A network topology
is the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and connecting lines.

BUS Topology

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable
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Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes,
then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to
prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
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 2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the
network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology

In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

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 2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology

It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected
to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
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 2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

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Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

LAN:

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and other devices in a
relatively small area, typically a single building or a group of buildings.

Most LANs connect workstations and personal computers and enable users to access data and
devices (e.g., printers and modems) anywhere on the network. Users can also use the LAN to
communicate with each other, by sending e-mail or engaging in chat sessions.

WAN:
Wide area network (WAN) is a type of telecommunication network, which is used to connect
the computers on a wide geographical area. WANs are quite popular and widely used networks,
the most known and bright example of WAN is the Internet.
MAN:
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network on the large geographical
area that include several buildings or even the entire city (metropolis). The geographical area of
the MAN is larger than LAN, but smaller than WAN.

What is a Router?
A router (including a wireless router) is a specialized networking device connected to two or
more networks running software that allows the router to move data from one network to
another. Router works on 3rd layer of OSI model. The primary function of a router is to connect
networks together and keep certain kinds of broadcast traffic under control. There are several
companies that make routers: Cisco, Linksys, Net gear, Red back, Lucent, 3Com, HP, Dlink etc.

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Network hub

A network hub is a node that broadcasts data to every computer or Ethernet-based device
connected to it. Network hubs are best suited for small, simple local area network (LAN)
environments. Network hubs are categorized as Layer 1 devices in the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) reference model.

Switch

A switch is used to network multiple computers together.

A switch, in the context of networking is a high-speed device that receives incoming data packets
and redirects them to their destination on a local area network (LAN). A LAN switch operates at
the data link layer (Layer 2) or the network layer of the OSI Model.

What is TCP/IP

TCP/IP stands for “Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol”. It is basically a network
protocol that defines the details of how data is sent and received through network adapters, hubs,
switches, routers and other network communications hardware. It was developed by the US
department of defense for the purpose of connecting government computer systems to each other
through a global, fault tolerant, network.
The TCP/IP protocol was also placed in the public domain so that any software company could
develop networking software based on the protocol. Because it is the primary protocol used on
the Internet, and it is in the public domain, it has become the most popular networking protocol
throughout the world and is therefore well supported by almost all computer systems and
networking hardware.

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Application layer: It provides services for file transfer, e-mail and other network software
services. The application layer protocols are telnet, ftp, SMTP etc.
Transport layer protocol: The core protocols of the Transport layer are Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
TCP provides a one-to-one, connection-oriented, reliable communications service.
UDP provides a one-to-one or one-to-many, connectionless, unreliable communications service.

Internet Layer: The Internet layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing
functions. The core protocols of the Internet layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, and IGMP.

 The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol responsible for IP addressing, routing,
and the fragmentation and reassembly of packets.
 The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for the resolution of the Internet
layer address to the Network Interface layer address such as a hardware address.
 The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is responsible for providing diagnostic
functions and reporting errors due to the unsuccessful delivery of IP packets.
 The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is responsible for the management of
IP multicast groups.

Network Interface Layer

The Network Interface layer (also called the Network Access layer) is responsible for placing
TCP/IP packets on the network medium and receiving TCP/IP packets off the network medium.

DNS:
DNS which stands for Domain Name System, controls your domain name’s website and email
settings. When visitors go to your domain name, it’s DNS setting checks which company’s
server it reaches out to.
For eg: if you use Google’s DNS settings, visitors will reach Google’s server when using your
domain name. If you change those settings to the company’s server then visitor will reach them
instead of us when visiting your domain.
The DNS is used to resolve human readable hostname like www.mywebage.com in machine
readable IP address like 10.202.242.100.

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