University of Basrah

College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering

Analogue Electronics

CS307
Chapter Two

Active Filters

Third Year Class

By: Mr. Abdul-Basset A. AL-Hussein
Chapter Two Active Filters

Active Filters:
Filters are circuits that are capable of passing signals with certain selected
frequencies while rejecting signals with other frequencies. This property is called
selectivity.
Filters are usually categorized by the manner in which the output voltage varies
with frequency of the input voltage. The categories of active filters are low-pass,
high-pass, band-pass, and band-stop.
The oldest technology for realizing filters makes use of inductors and
capacitors, and the resulting circuits are called passive LC filters. Such filters
work well at high frequencies; however, in low-frequency applications
(dc to 100 kHz) the required inductors are large and physically bulky, and their
characteristics are quite non ideal.
Furthermore, such inductors are impossible to fabricate in monolithic form and
are incompatible with any of the modern techniques for assembling electronic
systems.

Active-RC filters utilize op amps together with resistors and capacitors and are
fabricated using discrete, hybrid thick-film or hybrid thin-film circuit
technologies. However, for large-volume production, such technologies do not
yield the economies achieved by monolithic (IC) fabrication.
At the present time, there are two popular approaches for realizing fully
integrated filters: the trans-conductance-C approach, which is particularly
suited for high-frequency applications, and the switched-capacitor approach,
which is used for audio-frequency applications.

2
Chapter Two Active Filters

2.1 Filter Transmission, Types, and Specification

2.1.1 Filter Transmission
The filters we are about to study are linear circuits that can be represented by the
general two-port network shown in Fig. 2.1.

Figure 2.1 The filters studied in this chapter are linear circuits represented by
the general two-port network shown. The filter transfer function
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖 (𝑠).
The filter transfer function 𝑇(𝑠) is the ratio of the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) to the
input voltage 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠):

𝑇(𝑠) = 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) (2.1)

The filter transmission is found by evaluating 𝑇(𝑠) for physical frequencies,
𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔, and can be expressed in terms of its magnitude and phase as
𝑇( 𝑗𝜔) = |𝑇( 𝑗𝜔)|𝑒 𝑗𝜑(𝜔) (2.2)
The magnitude of transmission is often expressed in decibels in terms of the
gain function
𝐺 (𝜔) = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑇( 𝑗𝜔)|, [𝑑𝐵] (2.3)
or, alternatively, in terms of the attenuation function
𝐴(𝜔) = −20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑇( 𝑗𝜔)|, [𝑑𝐵] (2.4)
A filter shapes the frequency spectrum of the input signal, |𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔)|, according
to the magnitude of the transfer function |𝑇(𝑗𝜔)|, thus providing an output
3
Chapter Two Active Filters

𝑉𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) with a spectrum:

|𝑉𝑜 ( 𝑗𝜔)| = |𝑇(𝑗𝜔)||𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔)|

2.1.2 Filter Types

Fig. 2.2 depicts the ideal transmission characteristics of the four major filter types:
low-pass (LP) in Fig. 2.2(a), high-pass (HP) in Fig. 2.2(b), band-pass (BP) in Fig.
2.2(c), and band-stop (BS) or band-reject in Fig. 2.2(d).

Fig. 2.2 Ideal transmission characteristics of the four major filter types: (a) low-
pass (LP), (b) high-pass (HP), (c) bandpass (BP), and (d) bandstop (BS).

2.1.3 Filter Specification:

Figure 2.3 shows realistic specifications for the transmission characteristics of a

low-pass filter. Observe that since a physical circuit cannot provide constant
transmission at all passband frequencies, the specifications allow for deviation of
4
Chapter Two Active Filters

the passband transmission from the ideal 0 dB, but place an upper bound, 𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒙
(dB), on this deviation. Depending on the application, 𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒙 typically ranges
from 0.05 dB to 3 dB. Also, since a physical circuit cannot provide zero
transmission at all stopband frequencies, the specifications in Fig. 2.3 allow for
some transmission over the stopband. However, the specifications require the
stopband signals to be attenuated by at least 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏 (dB) relative to the passband
signals. Depending on the filter application, 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏 can range from 20 dB to 100
dB.
The ratio 𝜔/𝜔𝑠 is usually used as a measure of the sharpness of the low-pass
filter response and is called the selectivity factor.

Fig. 2.3 Specification of the transmission characteristics of a low-pass filter. The

magnitude response of a filter that just meets specifications is also shown.
To summarize, the transmission of a low-pass filter is specified by
four parameters:
1. The passband edge 𝜔𝑝
2. The maximum allowed variation in passband transmission 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
5
Chapter Two Active Filters

3. The stopband edge 𝜔𝑠

4. The minimum required stopband attenuation 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
The more tightly one specifies a filter—that is, lower 𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒙 , higher 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏 , and/or
a selectivity ratio 𝝎𝒔 /𝝎𝒑 closer to unity—the closer the response of the
resulting filter will be to the ideal. However, the resulting filter circuit will be of
higher order and thus more complex and expensive.

2.2 The Filter Transfer Function

The filter transfer function 𝑇(𝑠) can be written as the ratio of two polynomials as

The degree of the denominator, N, is the filter order. For the filter circuit to be
stable, the degree of the numerator must be less than or equal to that of the
denominator: 𝑴 ≤ 𝑵. The numerator and denominator coefficients,
𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … . . , 𝑎𝑀 and 𝑏0 , 𝑏, … . . , 𝑏𝑁−1 , are real numbers.
The polynomials in the numerator and denominator can be factored, and 𝑇(𝑠) can
be expressed in the form

The numerator roots, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , . . .. . , 𝑧𝑀 are the transfer function zeros or

transmission zeros; and the denominator roots, 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , . . .. . , 𝑝𝑁 , are the transfer
function poles, or the natural modes. Each transmission zero or pole can be
either a real or a complex number. Complex zeros and poles, however, must occur

6
Chapter Two Active Filters

in conjugate pairs. Thus, if −1 + 𝑗2 happens to be a zero, then – 1 – 𝑗2 also must

be a zero.
Continuing with the example in Fig. 2.3, we observe that the transmission
decreases toward zero as ω approaches ∞. Thus the filter must have one or more
transmission zeros at 𝑠 = ∞. In general, the number of transmission zeros at 𝑠 =
∞ is the difference between the degree of the numerator polynomial, M, and the
degree of the denominator polynomial, N, of the transfer function in Eq. (2.6).
This is because as s approaches ∞, 𝑇(𝑠) approaches 𝑎𝑀 /𝑆 𝑁−𝑀 and thus is said
to have 𝑁 – 𝑀 zeros at 𝑠 = ∞.

For a filter circuit to be stable, all its poles must lie in the left half of the s plane,
and thus 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , . . .. . , 𝑝𝑁 must all have negative real parts. Fig. 2.4 shows typical
pole and zero locations for the low-pass filter whose transmission function is
depicted in Fig. 2.3.
We have assumed that this filter is of fifth order (𝑁 = 5). It has two pairs of
complex-conjugate poles and one real-axis pole, for a total of five poles. All the
poles lie in the vicinity of the passband, which is what gives the filter its high
transmission at passband frequencies. The five transmission zeros are at 𝑠 =
±𝑗𝜔𝑙1 , 𝑠 = ±𝑗𝜔𝑙2 , and 𝑠 = ∞. Thus, the transfer function for this filter is of
the form:

7
Chapter Two Active Filters

Fig. 2.4 Pole–zero pattern for the low-pass filter whose transmission is sketched
in Fig. 2.3. This is a fifth-order filter (N = 5).

2.3 Butterworth and Chebyshev Filters

2.3.1 The Butterworth Filter
Fig. 2.5 shows a sketch of the magnitude response of a Butterworth filter. This
filter exhibits a monotonically decreasing transmission with all the transmission
zeros at 𝜔 = ∞, making it an all-pole filter. The magnitude function for an 𝑁 𝑡ℎ -
order Butterworth filter with a passband edge 𝜔𝑝 is given by:

8
Chapter Two Active Filters

Thus, the parameter 𝜖 determines the maximum variation in passband

transmission, 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 , according to:

𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20 log √1 + 𝜖 2 (2.13)

Fig. 2.5 The magnitude response of a Butterworth filter.

Conversely, given 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 the value 𝜖 of can be determined from

At the edge of the stopband, 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 , the attenuation of the Butterworth filter

can be obtained by substituting 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 in Eq. (2.11). The result is given by

This equation can be used to determine the filter order required, which is the
lowest integer value of N that yields 𝑨(𝜔𝑠 ) ≥ 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏 .

9
Chapter Two Active Filters

Note that the degree of passband flatness increases as the order N is

increased.

The natural modes of an Nth-order Butterworth filter can be determined from the

graphical construction shown in Fig. 2.6(a). Observe that the natural modes lie
1
on a circle of radius 𝜔𝑝 (1/𝜖 ) 𝑁 and are spaced by equal angles of 𝜋/𝑁, with the
first mode at an angle 𝜋/2𝑁 from the +𝑗𝜔 axis. Since the natural modes all have
equal radial distance from the origin, they all have the same frequency 𝜔𝑜 =
1
𝜔𝑝 (1/𝜖 )𝑁 . See Fig. 2.6(b), (c), and (d) for the natural modes of Butterworth
filters of order N = 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Once the N natural modes
𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , . . .. . , 𝑝𝑁 have been found, the transfer function can be written as:

where K is a constant equal to the required dc gain of the filter.

To find a Butterworth transfer function that meets transmission specifications of

the form in Fig. 2.3 we perform the following procedure:
1. Determine 𝜖 from Eq. (2.14).
2. Use Eq. (2.15) to determine the required filter order as the lowest integer value
of N that results in 𝐴(𝜔𝑠 ) ≥ 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 .
3. Use Fig. 2.6(a) to determine the N natural modes.
4. Use Eq. (2.16) to determine 𝑇(𝑠).

10
Chapter Two Active Filters

Fig. 2.6 Graphical construction for determining the poles of a Butterworth filter
of order N. (a) the general case; (b) N = 2; (c) N = 3; (d) N = 4.

Example 2.1:
Determine the order of the Butterworth low-pass filter that have the
specifications: 𝑓𝑝 = 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 𝑑𝐵, 𝑓𝑠 = 15 𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 25 𝑑𝐵,
dc gain = 1.
Solution:

To determine the order of the filter, apply the following condition

𝐴(𝜔𝑠 ) ≥ 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛

11
Chapter Two Active Filters

By solving the above equation yields N= 8.76. Therefore, N should be

approximated to 9.

2.3.2 The Chebyshev Filter:

Fig. 2.7 shows representative transmission functions for Chebyshev filters of even
and odd orders. The Chebyshev filter exhibits an equiripple response in the
passband and a monotonically decreasing transmission in the stopband. While the
odd-order filter has |𝑇(0)| = 1, the even-order filter exhibits its maximum
magnitude deviation at 𝜔 = 0. In both cases the total number of passband
maxima and minima equals the order of the filter, N.
All the transmission zeros of the Chebyshev filter are at 𝜔 = ∞, making it an
all-pole filter. The magnitude of the transfer function of an Nth-order Chebyshev
filter with a passband edge (ripple bandwidth) 𝜔𝑝 is given by:

and

At the passband edge, 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑝 , the magnitude function is given by:

12
Chapter Two Active Filters

Fig. 2.7 Sketches of the transmission characteristics of representative (a) even

order and (b) odd-order Chebyshev filters.

Thus, the parameter 𝜖 determines the passband ripple according to

Conversely, given 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the value of 𝜖 is determined from:

The attenuation achieved by the Chebyshev filter at the stopband edge (𝜔 = 𝜔𝑠 )

is found using Eq. (2.19) as:

With the aid of a calculator, this equation can be used to determine the order N
required to obtain a specified 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏 by finding the lowest integer value of N that
yields 𝑨(𝜔𝑠 ) ≥ 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏 .

13
Chapter Two Active Filters

As in the case of the Butterworth filter, increasing the order N of the Chebyshev
filter causes its magnitude function to approach the ideal brick-wall low-pass
response.
The poles of the Chebyshev filter are given by

Finally, the transfer function of the Chebyshev filter can be written as

where K is the dc gain that the filter is required to have.

To summarize, given low-pass transmission specifications of the type shown in

Fig. 2.3, the transfer function of a Chebyshev filter that meets these specifications
can be found as follows:
1. Determine 𝜖 from Eq. (2.21).
2. Use Eq. (2.22) to determine the order required.
3. Determine the poles using Eq. (2.23).
4. Determine the transfer function using Eq. (2.24).

The Chebyshev filter provides a more efficient approximation than the

Butterworth filter. Thus, for the same order and the same 𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒙 , the Chebyshev
filter provides greater stopband attenuation than the Butterworth filter.
Alternatively, to meet identical specifications, one requires a lower order for the
Chebyshev than for the Butterworth filter.

14
Chapter Two Active Filters

Example 2.2:
Find the Chebyshev transfer function that meets the same low-pass filter
specifications given in Example 2.1: namely, 𝑓𝑝 = 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 𝑑𝐵, 𝑓𝑠 =
15 𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 25 𝑑𝐵, 𝑑𝑐 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 1.
Solution
Substituting 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 dB into Eq. (2.21) yields = 0.5088. By trying various
values for N in Eq. (2.22) we find that N = 4 yields 𝐴(𝜔𝑠 ) = 21.6 dB and N =5
provides 29.9 dB. We thus select N =5.
Recall that we required a ninth-order Butterworth filter to meet the same
specifications in Example 2.1.
The poles are obtained by substituting in Eq. (2.23) as:
𝑃1 , 𝑃5 = 𝜔𝑝 (−0.0895 ± 𝑗0.9901)
𝑃2 , 𝑃4 = 𝜔𝑝 (−0.2342 ± 𝑗0.6119)
𝑃3 = 𝜔𝑝 (−0.2895)

The transfer function is obtained by substituting these values in Eq. (2.24) as

15
Chapter Two Active Filters

2.4 First-Order and Second–Order Filter Functions

2.4.1 First-Order Filters

16
Chapter Two Active Filters

An important special case of the first-order filter function is the all-pass filter
shown in Fig. 2.8

Fig.2.8 First order all pass filter

2.4.2 Second-Order Filter Functions

The general second-order (or biquadratic) filter transfer function is usually
expressed in the standard form

where 𝜔0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 determine the natural modes (poles) according to

Fig. 2.9 shows the location of the pair of complex-conjugate poles in the 𝑠 plane.
Observe that the radial distance of the natural modes (from the origin) is equal to
𝜔0 which is known as the pole frequency. The parameter Q determines the

17
Chapter Two Active Filters

distance of the poles from the 𝑗𝜔 axis: the higher the value of Q, the closer the
poles are to the 𝑗𝜔 axis, and the more selective the filter response becomes.

An infinite value for Q locates the poles on the 𝑗𝜔 axis and can yield sustained
oscillations in the circuit realization. A negative value of Q implies that the poles
are in the right half of the 𝑠 plane, which certainly produces oscillations. The
parameter Q is called the pole quality factor, or simply pole Q.

Fig. 2.9 Definition of the parameters 𝜔𝑝 and Q of a pair of complex-conjugate

poles.

The transmission zeros of the second-order filter are determined by the numerator
coefficients, 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , and 𝑎2 . It follows that the numerator coefficients determine
the type of second-order filter function (i.e., LP, HP, etc.). Several special cases
of interest are illustrated in Fig. 2.10. For each case we give the transfer function,
the 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 locations of the transfer function singularities, and the magnitude
response. All special second-order filters have a pair of complex-conjugate
natural modes characterized by a frequency 𝜔0 and a quality factor 𝑄.

18
Chapter Two Active Filters

In the low-pass (LP) case, shown in Fig. 2.10 (a), the two transmission zeros are
at 𝑠 = ∞. The magnitude response can exhibit a peak with the details indicated.
It can be shown that the peak occurs only for 𝑄 > 1/√2. The response obtained
for 𝑄 = 1/√2 is the Butterworth, or maximally flat, response.

The high-pass (HP) function shown in Fig. 2.10 (b) has both transmission zeros
at 𝑠 = 0 (dc). The magnitude response shows a peak for 𝑄 > 1/√2, with the
details of the response as indicated. Observe the duality between the LP and HP
responses.
Next consider the bandpass (BP) filter function shown in Fig. 2.10 (c). Here, one
transmission zero is at 𝑠 = 0 (dc), and the other is at 𝑠 = ∞. The magnitude
response peaks at 𝜔 = 𝜔0 . Thus the center frequency of the bandpass filter is
equal to the pole frequency 𝜔0 .
The selectivity of the second-order bandpass filter is usually measured by its 3-
dB bandwidth. This is the difference between the two frequencies 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 at
which the magnitude response is 3 dB below its maximum value (at 𝜔0 ). It can
be shown that

Observe that as Q increases, the bandwidth decreases and the bandpass filter
becomes more selective.
If the transmission zeros are located on the 𝑗𝜔 axis, at the complex-conjugate
locations ±𝑗𝜔𝑛 , then the magnitude response exhibits zero transmission at 𝜔 =
𝜔𝑛.
19
Chapter Two Active Filters

Fig.2.10 Second order filtering functions

20
Chapter Two Active Filters

Thus a notch in the magnitude response occurs at 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 and 𝜔𝑛 is known as

the notch frequency. Observe that in the notch case the transmission at dc and at
𝑠 = ∞ is finite. This is so because there are no transmission zeros
at either 𝑠 = 0 or 𝑠 = ∞. The filter is shown in Figure below:

The last special case of interest is the all-pass (AP) filter whose characteristics are
illustrated in Figure below. Here the two transmission zeros are in the right half
of the s-plane, at the mirror-image locations of the poles. The magnitude response
of the all-pass function is constant over all frequencies; the flat gain, as it is called,
is in our case equal to |𝑎|. The frequency selectivity of the all-pass function is in
its phase response.

21
Chapter Two Active Filters

2.5 The Second-Order RLC Resonator:

Fig. 2.11 (a) shows the general structure of the realization of the second order
filter using RLC resonator.
Note that the output will be zero either when 𝑍2 (𝑠) behaves as a short circuit or
when 𝑍1 (𝑠) behaves as an open circuit. If there is a value of s at which both 𝑍1 (𝑠)
and 𝑍2 (𝑠) are zero, then 𝑉𝑜 /𝑉𝑖 will be finite and no transmission zero is obtained.
Similarly, if there is a value of 𝑠 at which both 𝑍1 (𝑠) and 𝑍2 (𝑠) are infinite, then
𝑉𝑜 /𝑉𝑖 will be finite and no transmission zero is realized.

Fig.2.11 (a) Realization of the second order filter using RLC Resonator
(General structure).

2.5.1 Realization of the Low-Pass Function

Fig. 2.11 (b) shows the second order low pass filter using RLC resonator.
This circuit has two transmission zeros at 𝑠 = ∞, as a second-order LP is
supposed to. The transfer function can be written either by inspection or by using
the voltage divider rule. Following the latter approach, we obtain:

22
Chapter Two Active Filters

Fig.2.11 (b) Second order LP filter using RLC Resonator

2.5.2 Realization of the High-Pass Function:

Fig. 2.11 (c) shows the second order high pass filter using RLC resonator.

Fig.2.11 (c) Second order HP filter using RLC Resonator

2.5.3 Realization of the Bandpass Function:

Figure 2.11-d shows the second order band pass filter using RLC resonator.

23
Chapter Two Active Filters

2.5.4 Realization of the Notch Functions

The notch filter is shown in figure below

2.6 Second-Order Active Filters Based on Inductor

Replacement:
In this section, we study a family of op amp–RC circuits that realize the various
second-order filter functions. The circuits are based on an op amp–RC resonator
obtained by replacing the inductor L in the LCR resonator with an op amp–RC
circuit that has an inductive input impedance.

2.6.1 The Antoniou Inductance-Simulation Circuit:

Fig. 2.12 (a) shows the Antoniou inductance simulation circuit. If the circuit is
fed at its input (node 1) with a voltage source 𝑉1 and the input current is denoted
𝐼1 , then for ideal op amps the input impedance can be shown to be

which is that of an inductance L given by

24
Chapter Two Active Filters

Fig. 2.12 (a) The Antoniou inductance simulation circuit

Note that the design of this circuit is usually based on selecting 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 =

𝑅3 = 𝑅5 = 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶4 = 𝐶, which leads to 𝑳 = 𝑪𝑹𝟐 . Convenient values are
then selected for C and R to yield the desired inductance value L.

Fig. 2.12 (b) Analysis of circuit in (a) using ideal OP-amps

25
Chapter Two Active Filters

2.6.3 Realization of the Various Filter Types

The LP, HP and BP filters realization is shown below:

Fig. 13 Realizations for the various second-order filter functions using the op
amp–RC resonator.
26
Chapter Two Active Filters

2.7 Second-Order Active Filters Based on the Two-

Integrator-Loop Topology:
2.7.1 Derivation of the Two-Integrator-Loop Biquad:
To derive the two-integrator-loop biquadratic circuit, or biquad as it is commonly
known, consider the second order high-pass transfer function:

(1)

27
Chapter Two Active Filters

where K is the high-frequency gain. Cross-multiplying the above equation and

dividing both sides of the resulting equation by 𝑠 2 (to get all the terms involving
𝑠 in the form 1/𝑠, which is the transfer function of an integrator) gives:

(2)

In this equation we observe that the signal (𝜔0 /𝑆) 𝑉ℎ𝑝 can be obtained by passing
𝑉ℎ𝑝 through an integrator with a time constant equal to 1/𝜔0 .

By rearrange Eq. (2), expressing 𝑉ℎ𝑝 in terms of its single- and double-integrated
versions and of 𝑉𝑖 as:

which suggests that 𝑉ℎ𝑝 can be obtained by using the weighted summer of Fig.
2.13 (b). Now it should be easy to see that a complete block diagram realization
can be obtained by combining the integrator blocks of Fig. 2.13(a) with the
summer block of Fig. 2.13(b), as shown in Fig. 2.13(c).

28
Chapter Two Active Filters

In the realization of Fig. 2.14 (c), 𝑉ℎ𝑝 , obtained at the output of the summer,
realizes the high-pass transfer function 𝑇ℎ𝑝 ≡ 𝑉ℎ𝑝 /𝑉𝑖 of Eq. (1). The signal at
𝜔
the output of the first integrator is – ( 0 ) 𝑉ℎ𝑝 , which is a bandpass function:
𝑠

Fig.2.14 Derivation of a block diagram realization of the two integrator loop

biquad.

Therefore the signal at the output of the first integrator is labeled 𝑉𝑏𝑝 . Note that
the center-frequency gain of the bandpass filter realized is equal to – 𝐾𝑄.
We can also show that the transfer function realized at the output of the second
integrator is the low-pass function:

Thus the output of the second integrator is labeled 𝑉𝑙𝑝 . Note that the dc gain of
the low-pass filter realized is equal to K.
We conclude that the two-integrator-loop biquad shown in block diagram form in
Fig. 2.13 (c) realizes the three basic second-order filtering functions, LP, BP, and

29
Chapter Two Active Filters

HP, simultaneously. This versatility has made the circuit very popular and has
given it the name universal active filter.

2.7.2 Circuit Implementation:

To obtain an op-amp circuit implementation of the two-integrator-loop biquad of
Fig. 2.14 (c), we replace each integrator with a Miller integrator circuit having
𝐶𝑅 = 1/𝜔0 , and we replace the summer block with an op-amp summing circuit
that is capable of assigning both positive and negative weights to its inputs. The
resulting circuit, is shown in Fig. 2.15.
Given values for 𝜔0 , 𝑄, and 𝐾, the design of the circuit is straightforward:
We select suitably practical values for the components C and R of the integrators
so that 𝐶𝑅 = 1/𝜔0 . To determine the values of the resistors associated with the
summer, we first use superposition to express the output of the summer 𝑉ℎ𝑝 in
terms of its inputs, 𝑉𝑖 , 𝑉𝑏𝑝 , and 𝑉𝑙𝑝 as

(3)
Equating the last right-hand-side terms of Eqs. (3) and (2) gives
𝑅𝑓
=1
𝑅1
which implies that we can select arbitrary but practically convenient equal values
for 𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑓 . Then, equating the second-to-last terms on the right-hand side of

30
Chapter Two Active Filters

Eqs. (3) and (2) and setting 𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑓 yields the ratio 𝑅3 /𝑅2 required to realize a
given 𝑄 as:
𝑅3
= 2𝑄 − 1
𝑅2
Finally, equating the coefficients of 𝑉𝑖 in Eqs. (3) and (2) and substituting 𝑅𝑓 =
𝑅1 and for 𝑅3 /𝑅2 = 2𝑄 − 1 results in:
𝐾 = 2 − (1/𝑄)

Fig.2.15 Two integrators loop topology circuit for the three basic filtering
functions HP, BP, and LP, which are simultaneously realized.

2.8 Single Amplifier Biquad Sections:

Low-Pass Filter:
A first-order, low-pass filter using a single resistor and capacitor as shown in
Fig. 2.16.

31
Chapter Two Active Filters

Fig. 2.16 (a) LP 1st Order Filter

The Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter:

The Sallen-Key is one of the most common configurations for a second-order
(two-pole) filter. It is also known as a VCVS (voltage-controlled voltage source)
filter. A low-pass version of the Sallen-Key filter is shown in Fig. 2.17.
The critical frequency for the Sallen-Key filter is
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋√𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 𝐶𝐴 𝐶𝐵

32
Chapter Two Active Filters

Cascaded Low-Pass Filters:

To obtain more order filters, we can cascaded more different ordered filters as
the examples shown in Fig. 2.18

33
Chapter Two Active Filters

Figure 2.18
The Sallen-Key High-Pass Filter:

A high pass Sallen-Key configuration is shown in Fig. 2.19. Notice that the
positions of the resistors and capacitors in the frequency-selective circuit are
opposite to those in the low-pass configuration. As with the other filters, the
response characteristic can be optimized by proper selection of the feedback
resistors, and 𝑅1 𝑅2 .

Fig. 2.19
34
Chapter Two Active Filters

Cascading High-Pass Filters:

Cascaded Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters:

One way to implement a Band-Pass Filter is a cascaded arrangement of a high-
pass filter and a low-pass filter, as shown in Fig. 2.20. The critical frequency of
each filter is chosen so that the response curves overlap sufficiently, as indicated
in Figure 2.20. The critical frequency of the high-pass filter must be sufficiently
lower than that of the low-pass stage. This filter is generally limited to wide
bandwidth applications.

Fig. 2.20
35
Chapter Two Active Filters

The lower frequency 𝑓𝑐1 of the passband is critical frequency of high-pass filter.
The upper frequency 𝑓𝑐2 is the critical frequency of the low-pass filter. Ideally,
the center frequency 𝑓𝑜 of passband is the geometric mean of 𝑓𝑐1 and 𝑓𝑐2 . The
following formulas express the three frequencies of the bandpass filter in Fig.
2.20.

Figure 2.21

Multiple-Feedback Band-Pass Filter:

Another type of filter configuration, shown in Fig. 2.22, is a multiple-feedback
bandpass filter. The two feedback paths are through 𝑅2 and 𝐶1 . Components 𝑅1
and 𝐶1 provide the low-pass response, and 𝑅2 and 𝐶2 provide the high-pass

36
Chapter Two Active Filters

response. The maximum gain, 𝐴, occurs at the center frequency. 𝑄 values of less
than 10 are typical in this type of filter.

Fig. 2.22

37