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6.4 Digital Transmission

Digital transmission is the transmittal of digital signals between two or more points in a
communication system. The signals can be binary or any other form of discrete-level
digital pulses. The original source information may be in digital form or it could be
analog signals that have been converted to digital pulses prior to transmission.

With digital transmission systems, a physical facility, such as a pair or wires, coaxial
cable or an optical fiber cable, is required to interconnect the various points within the
system. Note that digital pulses cannot be propagated through a wireless transmission
system, such as Earth’s atmosphere or free space.

6.4.1 Pulse Modulation

Pulse modulation is a process of sampling analog information signals and then converting
those samples into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from a source to a
destination over a physical transmission medium. The four predominant methods of pulse
modulation are Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), Pulse Position Modulation (PPM),
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) and Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).

• In PWM, the width of constant-amplitude pulse is varied proportional to the

amplitude of the analog signal at the time the signal is sampled.
• In PPM, the position of a constant-width and constant-amplitude pulse is varied
according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal.
• In PAM, the amplitude of a constant-width pulse is varied proportional to the
amplitude of the sample of the analog signal.
• In PCM, the analog signal is sampled and then converted to a serial n-bit binary
code for transmission. Each code has the same number of bits and requires the
same length of time for transmission.

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Figure 6.8 shows examples of PWM, PPM and PAM waveforms.

Figure 6.8: PWM, PPM and PAM waveforms

• For PWM, the maximum analog signal amplitude produces the widest pulse and
the minimum analog signal amplitude produces the narrowest pulse.
• For PPM, the higher the sample’s amplitude, the farther to the right the pulse is
positioned within the prescribed time slot. The highest amplitude sample produces
a pulse to the far right while the lowest amplitude sample produces a pulse to the
far left.
• For PAM, the amplitude of a pulse coincides with the amplitude of the analog
signal.
PAM is used as an intermediate form of modulation with PSK and PCM, although it is
seldom used by itself. PWM and PPM are used in special-purpose communication
systems mainly for the military but are seldom used for commercial digital transmission
systems. PCM is by far the most prevalent form of pulse modulation and will be
discussed in more detail in subsequent section of this chapter.

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6.4.2 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Figure 6.9 shows simplified block diagram of a single-channel, simplex PCM system.

PAM signal Parallel data

Analog input Band pass Sample and Analog to Parallel to

signal filter hold digital serial
converter converter

Sample pulse
Conversion Line speed
clock clock

Serial PCM Serial PCM Serial PCM

code code code
Regenerative Regenerative
repeater repeater

Parallel data PAM signal

Serial to Digital to Hold circuit Low pass Analog output

parallel analog filter signal
converter converter

Line speed Conversion

clock clock

Figure 6.9: PCM system

• Band pass filter limits the frequency of analog signal to standard voice-band
frequency range.
• Sample and hold circuit samples the analog signal and converts those samples to a
multilevel PAM signal.
• Analog-to-digital converter converts multilevel PAM samples to parallel PCM
codes.
• Parallel-to-serial converter converts parallel PCM codes to serial binary data.
• Repeaters are placed at prescribed distances to regenerate the data.
• Serial-to-parallel converter converts serial binary data to parallel PCM codes.
• Digital-to-analog converter converts parallel PCM codes to multilevel PAM
signals.
• Hold circuit and low pass filter converts PAM signals back to its original form.

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6.4.2.1 Sampling and sampling rate

The function of a sampling circuit in a PCM transmitter is to periodically sample the

continually changing analog input voltage and convert those samples to a series of pulses
that can more easily be converted to binary PCM code.

The Nyquist sampling theorem establishes the minimum sampling rate that can be used
for a given PCM system. The theorem states that,

The original analog input signal can be reconstructed at the receiver with minimal
distortion if the sampling rate in the pulse modulation system is equal to or greater than
twice the maximum analog input frequency.

• Mathematical representation:
f s  2 f m(max) (6.15)

Where fs = sampling rate / sampling frequency

fm(max) = maximum analog input frequency

• I.e. the minimum sampling rate is equal to twice the highest analog input
frequency.

6.4.2.2 Quantization

Quantization is a process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to a finite

number of conditions. In relations to this chapter, once the analog signal is sampled,
quantization is a process of assigning those samples to pre-determined discrete
quantization levels.

• The number of quantization levels L depends on the number of bits per sample
used to code the analog signal.

L = 2n (6.16)

• The magnitude difference between adjacent levels is called the quantization

interval or quantum or resolution.
• The resolution is equal to the voltage of the minimum step size, which in turn is
equal to the voltage of the least significant bit of the PCM code. It can be
represented mathematically as

Vmax − Vmin
V = (6.17)
L −1

Where V = resolution,
Vmax = maximum analog input signal

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Vmin = minimum analog input signal

In most cases, the likelihood of a sample voltage is exactly the same as one of the
quantization level values is remote. Therefore, each sample voltage is rounded off
(quantized) to the closest available level. This process leads to an error called
quantization error or quantization noise.

• It is the distortion introduced during quantization process when the analog sample
voltage is not exact value of the quantized level.
• Mathematical representation:
Qe = [ x(t )] − [q(t )] (6.18)

Where Qe = quantization error / quantization noise

[ x(t )] = magnitude of analog sample voltage
[q (t )] = magnitude of the closest quantized level

V
• Maximum quantization error is given by Qe (max) =  (6.19)
2
• Quantization error can be reduced by increasing the number of quantization
levels, but this will increase the bandwidth required to transmit the signal.
• Signal-to-quantization noise ratio (SQR):

V
SQR = (6.20)
Qe

 v2  v
In decibel, SQR = 10 log 2  = 10.8 + 20 log (6.21)
 q / 12  q

Where v = rms signal voltage

q = quantization interval

6.4.2.3 Encoding

This is the process where each quantized sample is digitally encoded into n-bits codes,
where n maybe any positive integer greater than 1.

n = log 2 L (6.22)
• The codes currently used for PCM are sign-magnitude codes, where the most
significant bit (MSB) is the sign bit and the remaining bits are used for
magnitude.
• Table 6.1 shows an n-bit PCM code where n equals 3.

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Table 6.1: 3-bit PCM code

Sign bit Magnitude / Value bit

0 00
0 01
0 10
0 11
1 00
1 01
1 10
1 11

MSB is used to represent the sign of sample where logic 1 represent positive
value sample while logic 0 represent negative value sample.

Figure 6.10 shows all parameters related to 3-bit PCM system.

Figure 6.10: Quantization level, resolution, quantization error, sign bit, and magnitude bit
Figure 6.11 shows an analog waveform, sampling pulse, the corresponding sampled
signal (PAM), quantized signal and PCM code for each sample.

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Figure 6.11: (a) Input signal, (b) sampling pulse, (c) PAM signal, (d) quantized signal and
(e) PCM code

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6.4.2.4 Dynamic Range

The number of PCM bits transmitted per sample is determined by several variables,
which includes maximum allowable input amplitude, resolution and dynamic range.

Dynamic range (DR) is the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest
possible magnitude that can be decoded by the digital-to-analog converter (DAC) in the
receiver.

• Mathematical representation:
Vmax Vmax
DR = = (6.23)
Vmin V

Where Vmax = maximum voltage that can be decoded by DAC

Vmin = V = resolution

• The relationship between DR and the number of bits in a PCM code:

2 n −1  DR (6.24)

For a minimum number of bits, 2 n −1 = DR (6.25)

Where n = number of bits in a PCM code, excluding sign bit

• Rearranging Equation (6.25), we can solve for n by taking logs:

log 2 n = log(DR + 1)  n log 2 = log(DR + 1)

log( DR + 1)
n=
log 2
• DR can also be expressed in decibels:
V 
DR(db) = 20 log max  = 20 log(2 n − 1) (6.26)
 Vmin 
6.4.2.5 Coding Efficiency

Coding efficiency is a numerical indication of how efficiently a PCM code is utilized. It is

a ratio of the minimum number of bits required to achieve a certain dynamic range to the
actual number of PCM bits used. I.e.:

Min number of bits (including sign bit )

Coding efficiency =  100 (6.27)
Actual number of bits (including sign bit )

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6.4.3 Companding

Companding is a process of compressing and then expanding. With companded systems,

the higher-amplitude analog signals are compressed (amplified less than the lower-
amplitude signals) prior to transmission and then expanded (amplified more than the
lower-amplitude signals) in the receiver.

• Companding is a means of improving the dynamic range of a communication

system.
• There are two methods of analog companding for PCM system: µ-Law
companding and A-Law companding.

6.4.3.1 µ-Law companding

• Used in the US and Japan.

• The compression characteristics for µ-Law:

Vmax ln(1 + Vin / Vmax )

Vout = (6.28)
ln(1 +  )

Where Vout = compressed output amplitude

Vmax = maximum uncompressed analog input amplitude
Vin = amplitude of the input signal at a particular instant of time
µ = parameter used to define the amount of compression

Figure 6.12 shows the compression curve for several values of µ. Note that the higher the
µ, the more compression.

Figure 6.12: µ-Law compression characteristics

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6.4.3.2 A-Law companding

• Used in Europe and other parts of the world.

• The compression characteristics for A-Law:

AVin / Vmax Vin 1

Vout = Vmax for 0  (6.28a)
1 + ln A Vmax A
1 + ln( AVin / Vmax ) 1 V
Vout = Vmax for  in  1 (6.28b)
1 + ln A A Vmax

Figure 6.13 shows the compression curves for several values of A.

Figure 6.13: A-Law compression characteristics

For an intended dynamic range, A-Law companding has a slightly flatter SQR than µ-
Law. However, A-Law companding is inferior to µ-Law in terms of small-signal quality.

6.4.4 Delta Modulation PCM

With conventional PCM, each code is a binary representation of both sign and the
magnitude of a particular sample. Therefore, multiple-bit codes are required to represent
the many values that the sample can be. With delta modulation, rather than transmit a
coded representation of the sample, only a single bit is transmitted, which simply
indicates whether that sample is larger of smaller than the previous sample.

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• If the current sample is smaller than the previous sample, logic 0 is transmitted. If
the current sample is larger than the previous sample, logic 1 is transmitted.

6.4.4.1 Delta Modulation Transmitter

Figure 6.14 shows a block diagram of a delta modulation transmitter.

Figure 6.14: Delta modulation transmitter

• The input analog is sampled and converted to a PAM signal, which is compared
to the output of the DAC.
• The output of the DAC is a voltage equal to the regenerated magnitude of the
previous sample (stored in the up-dowm counter as a binary number)
• The up-down counter is incremented or decremented depending on whether the
previous sample is larger or smaller than the current sample. It is clocked at a rate
equal to the sample rate (i.e. updated after each comparison)

Figure 6.15 shows the ideal operation of a delta modulation encoder.

Figure 6.15: Ideal operation of a delta modulation encoder

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• Initial conditon: Up-down counter is zeroed, DAC ouput = 0V.

• When the first sample is taken and converted to PAM signal, it is compared to
zero volts. The output of the comparator is logic 1 (current sample is larger in
amplitude than the previous sample).
• Next clock pulse, the counter is updated (incremented to a count of 1). The DAC
now outputs a voltage equal to the magnitude of minimum step size / resolution.
The second sample is now compared to the new DAC output, and so on.

Based on Figure 6.15, the up-down counter follows the input analog sample
(incremented) until the output of the DAC exceeds the analog sample amplitude; then it
will begin counting down (decremented) until the output of the DAC drops below the
sample amplitude.

• Each time the up-down counter is incremented, logic 1 is transmitted, and each
time the up-down counter is decremented, logic 0 is transmitted.

6.4.4.2 Delta Modulation Receiver

Figure 6.16 shows the block diagram of a delta modulation receiver.

Figure 6.16: Delta modulation receiver

• The receiver almost identical to the transmitter except for the comparator.
• As the logics 1 and 0 are received, the counter is incremented or decremented
accordingly. Consequently, the output of the DAC in the reciever is identical to
the output of the DAC in the transmitter (Figure 6.16).

With delta modulation, each sample requires the transmission of only one bit, therefore
the bit rates associated with delta modulation are lower than conventional PCM systems.
However, there are two problems associated with delta modulation that do not occur with
conventional PCM: slope overload and granular noise.

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Slope overload:

Figure 6.17: Slope overload distortion

• Occurs when the analog input signal changes at a faster rate than the DAC can
maintain.
• The slope of the analog signal is greater than the delta modulator can maintain.
• Solutions: increase the clock frequency or increase the magnitude of the minimum
step size (resolution).

Granular noise:

Figure 6.18 contrasts the original and reconstructed signals associated with delta
modulation system.

Figure 6.18: Granular noise

• When the original signal has a relatively constant amplitude, the reconstructed
signal has variations that were not present in the original signal. This is called
granular noise.
• It can be reduced by decreasing the step size (resolution)

Note that to reduce the granular noise, a small resolution is needed while to reduce the
slope overload, a large resolution is required. I.e. a compromise is necessary.

• Granular noise is more prevelant in analog signals that have gradual slope and
whose amplitudes vary only a small amount.
• Slope overload is more prevalent in analog signals that have steep slopes or
whose amplitudes vary rapidly.

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