Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Apply analytical methods of vector algebra to find resultant vectors and to solve vector
equations for unknown vectors.
Interpret physical situations in terms of vector expressions.

Vectors can be added together and multiplied by scalars. Vector addition is associative (Equation 2.8)
and commutative (Equation 2.7), and vector multiplication by a sum of scalars is distributive (Equation
2.9). Also, scalar multiplication by a sum of vectors is distributive:

α(→A +→B) = α→A + α→B.(2.22)

In this equation, α is any number (a scalar). For example, a vector antiparallel to vector
ˆ ˆ ˆ
→
A = Ax i + Ay j + Azk can be expressed simply by multiplying →A by the scalar α = −1:

ˆ ˆ ˆ
−→A = −Ax i − Ay j − Azk . (2.23)

EXAMPLE 2.8

Direction of Motion
ˆ ˆ
In a Cartesian coordinate system where i denotes geographic east, j denotes geographic
ˆ
north, and k denotes altitude above sea level, a military convoy advances its position
ˆ ˆ ˆ
through unknown territory with velocity →v = (4.0 i + 3.0 j + 0.1k )km/h. If the convoy had to
retreat, in what geographic direction would it be moving?

Solution
ˆ
The velocity vector has the third component →vz = ( + 0.1km/h)k , which says the convoy is
climbing at a rate of 100 m/h through mountainous terrain. At the same time, its velocity is
4.0 km/h to the east and 3.0 km/h to the north, so it moves on the ground in direction
−1
tan (3 /4) ≈ 37° north of east. If the convoy had to retreat, its new velocity vector →u
would have to be antiparallel to→v and be in the form→u = −α→v, where α is a positive
ˆ ˆ ˆ
number. Thus, the velocity of the retreat would be→u = α(−4.0 i − 3.0 j − 0.1k )km/h. The
negative sign of the third component indicates the convoy would be descending. The
−1
direction angle of the retreat velocity is tan (−3α/ − 4α) ≈ 37° south of west. Therefore,
the convoy would be moving on the ground in direction 37° south of west while descending
on its way back.
The generalization of the number zero to vector algebra is called the null vector, denoted by →0. All
ˆ ˆ ˆ
components of the null vector are zero, →0 = 0 i + 0 j + 0k , so the null vector has no length and no
direction.

Two vectors →A and→B are equal vectors if and only if their difference is the null vector: →0 =→A

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
−→B = (Ax i + Ay j + Azk ) − (Bx i + By j + Bzk ) = (Ax − Bx) i + (Ay − By) j + (Az − Bz)k

This vector equation means we must have simultaneously Ax − Bx = 0, Ay − By = 0, and Az − Bz = 0.

Hence, we can write→A =→B if and only if the corresponding components of vectors →A and→B are equal:

Ax = Bx
→ →
A= B⇔

{
Ay = By Az = Bz

.(2.24)

Two vectors are equal when their corresponding scalar components are equal.

Resolving vectors into their scalar components (i.e., finding their scalar components) and expressing
them analytically in vector component form (given by Equation 2.19) allows us to use vector algebra to
find sums or differences of many vectors analytically (i.e., without using graphical methods). For
example, to find the resultant of two vectors →A and→B, we simply add them component by component,
as follows:

→ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
R =→A +→B = (Ax i + Ay j + Azk ) + (Bx i + By j + Bzk ) = (Ax + Bx) i + (Ay+ By) j + (Az + Bz)k .

ˆ ˆ ˆ
In this way, using Equation 2.24, scalar components of the resultant vector→R = Rx i + Ry j + Rzk are the
sums of corresponding scalar components of vectors →A and→B:

{
Rx = Ax + Bx, Ry = Ay + By, Rz = Az + Bz.

Analytical methods can be used to find components of a resultant of many vectors. For example, if we
ˆ ˆ ˆ
are to sum up N vectors →F1,→F2,→F3, …,→FN, where each vector is →Fk = Fkx i + Fky j + Fkzk , the resultant
vector→FRis

N
→
FR =→F1 +→F2 +→F3 + … +→FN = ∑
 k =1
→
Fk = N ∑ k =1 ( ) Fkxˆi + Fkyˆj + Fkzkˆ
N N N

()()()
= ˆ ˆ ˆ
Fkx i + Fky j + Fkz k.
∑ k =1 k =1 k =1

∑ ∑

Therefore, scalar components of the resultant vector are

∑ Fky = F1y + F2y + … + FNy k (2.25)

{
=1
Fkx = F1x + F2x + … + FNx k
=1 N

N ∑
∑ Fkz = F1z + F2z + … + FNz. k
=1
FRx = FRy = FRz =

Having found the scalar components, we can write the resultant in vector component form:

→ ˆ ˆ ˆ
FR = FRx i + FRy j + FRzk .

Analytical methods for finding the resultant and, in general, for solving vector equations are very
important in physics because many physical quantities are vectors. For example, we use this method in
kinematics to find resultant displacement vectors and resultant velocity vectors, in mechanics to find
resultant force vectors and the resultants of many derived vector quantities, and in electricity and
magnetism to find resultant electric or magnetic vector fields.

EXAMPLE 2.9

Analytical Computation of a Resultant

Three displacement vectors →A,→B, and→C in a plane (Figure 2.13) are specified by their
magnitudes A = 10.0, B = 7.0, and C = 8.0, respectively, and by their respective direction
angles with the horizontal direction α = 35°, β = −110°, and γ = 30°. The physical units of the
magnitudes are centimeters. Resolve the vectors to their scalar components and find the
following vector sums: (a)→R =→A +→B +→C, (b)→D =→A −→B, and (c)→S =→A − 3→B +→C.

Strategy
First, we use Equation 2.17 to find the scalar components of each vector and then we
express each vector in its vector component form given by Equation 2.12. Then, we use
analytical methods of vector algebra to find the resultants.

Solution
We resolve the given vectors to their scalar components:
Ax = A cos α = (10.0 cm) cos 35° = 8.19 cm

{
Ay = A sin α = (10.0 cm) sin 35° = 5.73 cm

Bx = B cos β = (7.0 cm) cos (−110°) =

−2.39 cm {
.
By = B sin β = (7.0 cm) sin (−110°) = −6.58 cm

Cx = C cos γ = (8.0 cm) cos 30° = 6.93 cm

{
Cy = C sin γ = (8.0 cm) sin 30° = 4.00 cm

For (a) we may substitute directly into Equation 2.25 to find the scalar components of the
resultant:

Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx = 8.19 cm − 2.39 cm + 6.93 cm = 12.73 cm

{
Ry = Ay+ By+ Cy = 5.73 cm − 6.58 cm + 4.00 cm = 3.15 cm.

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
Therefore, the resultant vector is →R = Rx i + Ry j = (12.7 i + 3.1 j)cm.

For (b), we may want to write the vector difference as

→ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
D =→A −→B = (Ax i + Ay j) − (Bx i + By j) = (Ax − Bx) i + (Ay − By) j.

Then, the scalar components of the vector difference are

Dx = Ax − Bx = 8.19 cm − (−2.39 cm) = 10.58 cm

{
 Dy = Ay − By = 5.73 cm − (−6.58 cm) = 12.31 cm.

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
Hence, the difference vector is →D = Dx i + Dy j = (10.6 i + 12.3 j)cm.

For (c), we can write vector→S in the following explicit form:

→ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
S =→A − 3→B +→C = (Ax i + Ay j) − 3(Bx i + By j) + (Cx i + Cy j)
ˆ ˆ
= (Ax − 3Bx + Cx) i + (Ay − 3By+ Cy) j.

Then, the scalar components of→S are

Sx = Ax − 3Bx + Cx = 8.19 cm − 3(−2.39 cm) + 6.93 cm =

22.29 cm {
Sy = Ay − 3By + Cy = 5.73 cm − 3(−6.58 cm) + 4.00 cm = 29.47 cm.

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
The vector is →S = Sx i + Sy j = (22.3 i + 29.5 j)cm.

Significance
Having found the vector components, we can illustrate the vectors by graphing or we can
compute magnitudes and direction angles, as shown in Figure 2.24. Results for the
magnitudes in (b) and (c) can be compared with results for the same problems obtained with
the graphical method, shown in Figure 2.14 and Figure 2.15. Notice that the analytical method
produces exact results and its accuracy is not limited by the resolution of a ruler or a
protractor, as it was with the graphical method used in Example 2.2 for finding this same
resultant.

Figure 2.24 Graphical illustration of the solutions obtained analytically in Example 2.9.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.8

Three displacement vectors →A,→B, and→F (Figure 2.13) are specified by their magnitudes
 A = 10.00, B = 7.00, and F = 20.00, respectively, and by their respective direction angles
with the horizontal direction α = 35°, β = −110°, and φ = 110°. The physical units of the
magnitudes are centimeters. Use the analytical method to find vector →G =→A + 2→B −→F.
Verify that
G = 28.15 cm and that θG = −68.65°.

EXAMPLE 2.10

The Tug-of-War Game

Four dogs named Astro, Balto, Clifford, and Dug play a tug-of-war game with a toy (Figure
2.25). Astro pulls on the toy in direction α = 55° south of east, Balto pulls in direction β = 60°
east of north, and Clifford pulls in direction γ = 55° west of north. Astro pulls strongly with
160.0 units of force (N), which we abbreviate as A = 160.0 N. Balto pulls even stronger than
Astro with a force of magnitude B = 200.0 N, and Clifford pulls with a force of magnitude C =
140.0 N. When Dug pulls on the toy in such a way that his force balances out the resultant of
the other three forces, the toy does not move in any direction. With how big a force and in
what direction must Dug pull on the toy for this to happen?

Figure 2.25 Four dogs play a tug-of-war game with a toy.

Strategy
We assume that east is the direction of the positive x-axis and north is the direction of the
positive y-axis. As in Example 2.9, we have to resolve the three given forces— →A (the pull
from Astro),→B (the pull from Balto), and→C (the pull from Clifford)—into their scalar
components and then find the scalar components of the resultant vector →R =→A +→B +→C.
When the pulling force→D from Dug balances out this resultant, the sum of →D and→R must give
the null vector→D +→R =→0. This means that→D = −→R, so the pull from Dug must be antiparallel
to→R.

Solution
The direction angles are θA = −α = −55°, θB = 90° − β = 30°, and θC = 90° + γ = 145°, and
substituting them into Equation 2.17 gives the scalar components of the three given forces:

Ax = A cos θA = (160.0 N) cos (−55°) = + 91.8 N

{
Ay = A sin θA = (160.0 N) sin (−55°) = −131.1 N

Bx = B cos θB = (200.0 N) cos 30° = + 173.2 N

{
.
By = B sin θB = (200.0 N) sin 30° = + 100.0 N

Cx = C cos θC = (140.0 N) cos 145° =

−114.7 N {
Cy = C sin θC = (140.0 N) sin 145° = + 80.3 N

Now we compute scalar components of the resultant vector →R =→A +→B +→C:
Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx = + 91.8 N + 173.2 N − 114.7 N = + 150.3 N

{
Ry = Ay+ By+ Cy = −131.1 N + 100.0 N + 80.3 N = + 49.2 N.

The antiparallel vector to the resultant→R is

→ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
D = −→R = −Rx i − Ry j = (−150.3 i − 49.2 j) N.

The magnitude of Dug’s pulling force is

2
D = D x+ D
2
y
=
√(−150.3)2 + (−49.2)2 N = 158.1 N.
√
The direction of Dug’s pulling force is

−1
θ = tan Dy
−1
Dx= tan −49.2 N
−1
−150.3 N= tan 49.2

()()()
 150.3= 18.1°.

Dug pulls in the direction 18.1° south of west because both components are negative, which
means the pull vector lies in the third quadrant (Figure 2.19).

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.9

Suppose that Balto in Example 2.10 leaves the game to attend to more important
matters, but Astro, Clifford, and Dug continue playing. Astro and Clifford's pull on the toy
does not change, but Dug runs around and bites on the toy in a different place. With how
big a force and in what direction must Dug pull on the toy now to balance out the
combined pulls from Clifford and Astro? Illustrate this situation by drawing a vector
diagram indicating all forces involved.

EXAMPLE 2.11

Vector Algebra
ˆ
Find the magnitude of the vector→C that satisfies the equation 2→A − 6→B + 3→C = 2 j,
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
where →A = i − 2k and→B = − j + k /2.

Strategy
We first solve the given equation for the unknown vector →C. Then we substitute→A and→B;
ˆ ˆ ˆ
group the terms along each of the three directions i, j, and k; and identify the scalar
components Cx, Cy, and Cz. Finally, we substitute into Equation 2.21 to find magnitude C.

Solution
ˆ
2→A − 6→B + 3→C = 2 j

ˆ
3→C = 2 j − 2→A + 6→B
→ 2 ˆ 2 →
C= 3 j− 3 A + 2→B

2 ˆ 2 ˆ ˆ ˆ 2 ˆ 2 ˆ 4 ˆ ˆ
= 3 j − 3( i − 2k ) + 2 − j +ˆk2= 3 j − 3 i + 3k − 2 j + kˆ

()
()()
2 ˆ 2 ˆ 4
=− 3 i + 3− 2 j + 3+ 1 kˆ

2 ˆ 4 ˆ 7 ˆ
=− 3 i − 3 j + 3k .
 The components are Cx = −2 /3, Cy = −4/3, and Cz = 7 /3, and substituting into Equation
2.21 gives

2 2
C = C x+ C y+ C
2=
z √(−2/3)2 + (−4 /3)2 + (7 /3)2 = √23/3.
√

EXAMPLE 2.12

Displacement of a Skier
Starting at a ski lodge, a cross-country skier goes 5.0 km north, then 3.0 km west, and finally
4.0 km southwest before taking a rest. Find his total displacement vector relative to the lodge
when he is at the rest point. How far and in what direction must he ski from the rest point to
return directly to the lodge?

Strategy
We assume a rectangular coordinate system with the origin at the ski lodge and with the unit
ˆ ˆ
vector i pointing east and the unit vector j pointing north. There are three displacements: D1,
→

→
D2, and→D3. We identify their magnitudes as D1 = 5.0 km, D2 = 3.0 km, and D3 = 4.0 km. We
identify their directions are the angles θ1 = 90°, θ2 = 180°, and θ3 = 180° + 45° = 225°. We resolve
each displacement vector to its scalar components and substitute the components
into Equation 2.25 to obtain the scalar components of the resultant displacement →D from the
lodge to the rest point. On the way back from the rest point to the lodge, the displacement is
→
B = −→D. Finally, we find the magnitude and direction of→B.

Solution
Scalar components of the displacement vectors are

D1x = D1cos θ1 = (5.0 km) cos 90° = 0 {

D1y = D1sin θ1 = (5.0 km) sin 90° = 5.0 km D2x =

D2cos θ2 = (3.0 km) cos 180° = −3.0 km

.
{ D2y = D2sin θ2 = (3.0 km) sin 180° = 0

D3x = D3cos θ3 = (4.0 km) cos 225° = −2.8 km

{
D3y = D3sin θ3 = (4.0 km) sin 225° = −2.8 km

Scalar components of the net displacement vector are

Dx = D1x + D2x + D3x = (0 − 3.0 − 2.8)km = −5.8 km

{
 Dy = D1y+ D2y+ D3y = (5.0 + 0 − 2.8)km = + 2.2 km .

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
Hence, the skier’s net displacement vector is →D = Dx i + Dy j = (−5.8 i + 2.2 j)km. On the
ˆ ˆ ˆ
way back to the lodge, his displacement is →B = −→D = −(−5.8 i + 2.2 j)km = (5.8 i −
ˆ 2 = (5.8)2
2
2.2 j)km. Its magnitude is B = B x+ B y √ 2
+ (−2.2) km = 6.2 km and its direction
angle is

√
−1
θ = tan (−2.2/5.8) = −20.8°. Therefore, to return to the lodge, he must go 6.2 km
in a direction about 21° south of east.

Significance
Notice that no figure is needed to solve this problem by the analytical method. Figures are
required when using a graphical method; however, we can check if our solution makes
sense by sketching it, which is a useful final step in solving any vector problem.

EXAMPLE 2.13

Displacement of a Jogger
A jogger runs up a flight of 200 identical steps to the top of a hill and then runs along the top
of the hill 50.0 m before he stops at a drinking fountain (Figure 2.26). His displacement vector
ˆ
from point A at the bottom of the steps to point B at the fountain is →DAB = (−90.0 i +
ˆ
30.0 j)m. What is the height and width of each step in the flight? What is the actual distance
the jogger covers? If he makes a loop and returns to point A, what is his net displacement
vector?

Figure 2.26 A jogger runs up a flight of steps.

Strategy

The displacement vector→DABis the vector sum of the jogger’s displacement vector →DAT along
the stairs (from point A at the bottom of the stairs to point T at the top of the stairs) and
 his displacement vector→DTB on the top of the hill (from point A at the top of the stairs to the
fountain at point T). We must find the horizontal and the vertical components of →DAT. If each
step has width w and height h, the horizontal component of→DAT must have a length of 200w
and the vertical component must have a length of 200h. The actual distance the jogger
covers is the sum of the distance he runs up the stairs and the distance of 50.0 m that he
runs along the top of the hill.

Solution
In the coordinate system indicated in Figure 2.26, the jogger’s displacement vector on the

ˆ
top of the hill is →DTB = (−50.0 m) i. His net displacement vector is

→
DAB =→DAT +→DTB.

Therefore, his displacement vector→DTB along the stairs is

→ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
DAT =→DAB −→DTB = (−90.0 i + 30.0 j)m − (−50.0 m) i = [(−90.0 + 50.0) i +
ˆ ˆ ˆ
30.0 j)]m = (−40.0 i + 30.0 j)m.

Its scalar components are DATx = −40.0 m and DATy = 30.0 m. Therefore, we must have
200w = | − 40.0 | m and 200h = 30.0 m.
Hence, the step width is w = 40.0 m/200 = 0.2 m = 20 cm, and the step height is h = 30.0
m/200 = 0.15 m = 15 cm. The distance that the jogger covers along the stairs is

DAT = D
2
ATx+ D
2
ATy
=
√(−40.0)2 + (30.0)2 m = 50.0 m.
√
Thus, the actual distance he runs is DAT + DTB = 50.0 m + 50.0 m = 100.0 m. When he makes a
loop and comes back from the fountain to his initial position at point A, the total distance he
covers is twice this distance, or 200.0 m. However, his net displacement vector is zero,
because when his final position is the same as his initial position, the scalar components of his
net displacement vector are zero (Equation 2.13).

In many physical situations, we often need to know the direction of a vector. For example, we may
want to know the direction of a magnetic field vector at some point or the direction of motion of an
object. We have already said direction is given by a unit vector, which is a dimensionless entity—that
is, it has no physical units associated with it. When the vector in question lies along one of the axes in
a Cartesian system of coordinates, the answer is simple, because then its unit vector of direction is
either parallel or antiparallel to the direction of the unit vector of an axis. For example, the direction of
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
vector→d = −5 m i is unit vector d = − i. The general rule of finding the unit vector V of direction for any
vector→V is to divide it by its magnitude V:
 →
V
ˆ
V = V.(2.26)

We see from this expression that the unit vector of direction is indeed dimensionless because the
numerator and the denominator in Equation 2.26 have the same physical unit. In this way, Equation
2.26 allows us to express the unit vector of direction in terms of unit vectors of the axes. The following
example illustrates this principle.

EXAMPLE 2.14

The Unit Vector of Direction

If the velocity vector of the military convoy in Example 2.8 is
ˆ ˆ ˆ
v = (4.000 i + 3.000 j + 0.100k )km/h, what is the unit vector of its direction of motion?
→

Strategy
The unit vector of the convoy’s direction of motion is the unit vector vˆ that is parallel to the
velocity vector. The unit vector is obtained by dividing a vector by its magnitude, in
accordance with Equation 2.26.

Solution
The magnitude of the vector→v is

2=
2 2
v = v x+ v y+ v z √4.0002 + 3.0002 + 0.1002km/h = 5.001km/h.
√
( 4.000ˆ
To obtain the unit vector vˆ, divide→v by its magnitude: v= i

+3.000ˆj +0.100ˆk ) km/h

vˆ = 5.001km/h
→
v
( 4.000ˆ
= ˆ
i +3.000 j +0.100 k )
ˆ
5.001
4.000
=
ˆ 3.000
5.001 i+
ˆ 0.100
5.001 j+
ˆ
5.001 k
ˆ ˆ ˆ −2
= (79.98 i + 59.99 j + 2.00k ) × 10 .

Significance
Note that when using the analytical method with a calculator, it is advisable to carry out your
calculations to at least three decimal places and then round off the final answer to the
required number of significant figures, which is the way we performed calculations in this
example. If you round off your partial answer too early, you risk your final answer having a
huge numerical error, and it may be far off from the exact answer or from a value measured in
an experiment.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.10

Verify that vector vˆ obtained in Example 2.14 is indeed a unit vector by computing its
magnitude. If the convoy in Example 2.8 was moving across a desert flatland—that is, if
the third component of its velocity was zero—what is the unit vector of its direction of
motion? Which geographic direction does it represent?