Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe vectors in two and three dimensions in terms of their components, using unit vectors
along the axes.
Distinguish between the vector components of a vector and the scalar components of a vector.
Explain how the magnitude of a vector is defined in terms of the components of a vector.
Identify the direction angle of a vector in a plane.
Explain the connection between polar coordinates and Cartesian coordinates in a plane.

Vectors are usually described in terms of their components in a coordinate system. Even in everyday life
we naturally invoke the concept of orthogonal projections in a rectangular coordinate system. For
example, if you ask someone for directions to a particular location, you will more likely be told to go 40
37°
km east and 30 km north than 50 km in the direction north of east.

In a rectangular (Cartesian) xy-coordinate system in a plane, a point in a plane is described by a pair of

A⃗ 
⃗ 
coordinates (x, y). In a similar fashion, a vector in a plane is described by a pair of its vector A A⃗ 

coordinates. The x-coordinate of vector is called its x-component and the y-coordinate of vector A⃗ x

is called its y-component. The vector x-component is a vector denoted by . The vector y A⃗ y
component is a vector denoted by . In the Cartesian system, the x and y vector components of a
vector are the orthogonal projections of this vector onto the x- and y-axes, respectively. In this way,
following the parallelogram rule for vector addition, each vector on a Cartesian plane can be expressed
as the vector sum of its vector components:

⃗ 
A⃗ x A⃗ y
A=+. (2.10)

⃗ 
A A⃗ x
As illustrated in Figure 2.16, vector is the diagonal of the rectangle where the x-component is A⃗ y

the side parallel to the x-axis and the y-component is the side parallel to the y-axis. Vector A⃗ x A⃗ y
component is orthogonal to vector component .
 A⃗ 
Figure 2.16 Vector in a plane in the Cartesian coordinate system is the vector sum of its vector

A⃗ x A⃗ 
x- and y-components. The x-vector component is the orthogonal projection of vector onto A⃗ y A⃗ 
the x-axis. The y-vector component is the orthogonal projection of vector onto the y-axis. Ax Ay
The numbers and that multiply the unit vectors are the scalar components of the vector.

iˆ
ˆ
It is customary to denote the positive direction on the x-axis by the unit vector and the positive j
ˆ
i jˆ
direction on the y-axis by the unit vector . Unit vectors of the axes, and , define two orthogonal
directions in the plane. As shown in Figure 2.16, the x- and y- components of a vector can now be
written in terms of the unit vectors of the axes:

{A⃗ x = Ax iˆ A⃗ x A⃗ y A⃗ 

The vectors and defined by Equation 2.11 are the
⃗ y Ay jˆ
vector components of vector . The Ax Ay
A=.
(2.11)

numbers and that define the vector components in Equation 2.11 are the scalar components A⃗ 
of vector . Combining Equation 2.10 with Equation 2.11, we obtain the component form of a
vector:
 ⃗  ˆ
Ax i Ay jˆ

b(xb, yb) A=+. (2.12)

If we know the coordinates of the origin point of a vector (where b stands for “beginning”) e(xe, ye )
and the coordinates of the end point of a vector (where e stands for “end”), we can obtain the scalar
components of a vector simply by subtracting the origin point coordinates from the end point
coordinates:

(2.13) EXAMPLE 2.3

{Ax = xe − xb Ay = ye − yb.

Displacement of a Mouse Pointer

A mouse pointer on the display monitor of a computer at its initial position is at point (6.0 cm,
1.6 cm) with respect to the lower left-side corner. If you move the pointer to an icon located
at point (2.0 cm, 4.5 cm), what is the displacement vector of the pointer?

Strategy
The origin of the xy-coordinate system is the lower left-side corner of the computer monitor.
ˆ
i jˆ
Therefore, the unit vector on the x-axis points horizontally to the right and the unit vector on
the y-axis points vertically upward. The origin of the displacement vector is located at point
b(6.0, 1.6) and the end of the displacement vector is located at point e(2.0, 4.5). Substitute
the coordinates of these points into Equation 2.13 to find the scalar components

Dx Dy D⃗ 
and of the displacement vector . Finally, substitute the coordinates into Equation 2.12
to write the displacement vector in the vector component form.

Solution
xb = 6.0 xe = 2.0 yb = 1.6 ye = 4.5
We identify , , , and , where the physical unit is 1 cm. The scalar x- and y-components of
the displacement vector are

Dx Dy = x − = (2.0 − 6.0)cm = −4.0 cm, e xb = y − =

(4.5 − 1.6)cm = +2.9 cm. e yb

The vector component form of the displacement ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ

vector is Dx i Dy j i j i jˆ This solution is shown in Figure

⃗  2.17.
D = + = (−4.0 cm) + (2.9 cm) = (−4.0 + 2.9 )cm.
(2.14)

Figure 2.17 The graph of the displacement vector. The vector points from the origin point at b to the
end point at e.

Significance
Notice that the physical unit—here, 1 cm—can be placed either with each component
immediately before the unit vector or globally for both components, as in Equation 2.14.
Often, the latter way is more convenient because it is simpler.

ˆ
D = −4.0 = 4.0(− ) ⃗ x i iˆ
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ˆ∣
The vector x-component of the displacement vector has the ∣D⃗ x ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣i ∣ = 1
= − 4.0 = 4.0 ∣ ˆ∣
∣i ∣
magnitude because the magnitude of the unit vector is . −iˆ
Notice, too, that the direction of the x-component is , which is antiparallel to the direction

D⃗ x
⃗ 
of the +x-axis; hence, the x-component vector points to the left, as shown in Figure D
Dx = −4.0
2.17. The scalar x-component of vector is .

D⃗ y = +2.9jˆ
∣ = 2.9 = 2.9
Similarly, the vector y-component of the displacement vector has magnitude
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ˆ∣ ∣ = 1 ˆ∣
∣D⃗ y ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣j ∣ ∣j ∣
 because the magnitude of the unit vector is . The direction

+jˆ
of the y-component is , which is parallel to the direction of the +y-axis. Therefore, the y D⃗ y
⃗ 
component vector points up, as seen in Figure 2.17. The scalar y-component of vector D

Dy = +2.9 D⃗ 
is . The displacement vector is the resultant of its two vector components.

The vector component form of the displacement vector Equation 2.14 tells us that the mouse
pointer has been moved on the monitor 4.0 cm to the left and 2.9 cm upward from its initial
position.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.4

A blue fly lands on a sheet of graph paper at a point located 10.0 cm to the right of its left
edge and 8.0 cm above its bottom edge and walks slowly to a point located 5.0 cm from
the left edge and 5.0 cm from the bottom edge. Choose the rectangular coordinate
system with the origin at the lower left-side corner of the paper and find the
displacement vector of the fly. Illustrate your solution by graphing.

Ax Ay A⃗ 
When we know the scalar components and of a vector , we can find its magnitude A and its θA
direction angle . The direction angle—or direction, for short—is the angle the vector forms with the θA
positive direction on the x-axis. The angle is measured in the counterclockwise direction from the Ax
Ay
+x-axis to the vector (Figure 2.18). Because the lengths A, , and form a right triangle, they are related
by the Pythagorean theorem:

−−−−−−−
√
2 2 2 2 2
A xA yA x+ A y
A=+⇔A=. θA
(2.15)
This equation works even if the scalar components of a vector are negative. The direction angle of θA
a vector is defined via the tangent function of angle in the triangle shown in Figure 2.18:

(2.16)
tan θ =Ay Ax
 Figure 2.18 When the vector lies either in the first quadrant or in the fourth quadrant,
where Ax θA
component is positive (Figure 2.19), the direction angle in Equation 2.16) is identical to the θ
angle .

Ax
When the vector lies either in the first quadrant or in the fourth quadrant, where component is θ θA
positive (Figure 2.19), the angle in Equation 2.16 is identical to the direction angle . For vectors in θ θA
the fourth quadrant, angle is negative, which means that for these vectors, direction angle is θ
measured clockwise from the positive x-axis. Similarly, for vectors in the second quadrant, angle is Ax
negative. When the vector lies in either the second or third quadrant, where component is θA =
θ + 180°
negative, the direction angle is (Figure 2.19).
 Figure 2.19 Scalar components of a vector may be positive or negative. Vectors in the first quadrant (I) have
both scalar components positive and vectors in the third quadrant have both scalar components negative.
For θA = θ + 180°
vectors in quadrants II and III, the direction angle of a vector is .

EXAMPLE 2.4

Magnitude and Direction of the Displacement Vector

You move a mouse pointer on the display monitor from its initial position at point (6.0 cm, 1.6
cm) to an icon located at point (2.0 cm, 4.5 cm). What are the magnitude and direction of the
displacement vector of the pointer?

Strategy

D⃗ 
In Example 2.3, we found the displacement vector of the mouse pointer (see Equation Dx
= −4.0 cm Dy = +2.9 cm
2.14). We identify its scalar components and and substitute θD
into Equation 2.15 and Equation 2.16 to find the magnitude D and direction , respectively.

Solution

D⃗ 
The magnitude of vector is

2 2 −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
(2.9 cm) √ (4.0) +
−−−−−−− 2 −−−−−−−−−−−−
√ (−4.0 cm) + 2x D2y 2
(2.9) √
 D = D + = = cm = 4.9 cm. The direction angle is

Dy −1
−4.0 cmtan
+2.9 cm
tan θ = = = −0.725 ⇒ θ = (−0.725) = −35.9°. Dx

D⃗ 
Vector lies in the second quadrant, so its direction angle is

θD = θ + 180° = −35.9° + 180° = 144.1°.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.5

If the displacement vector of a blue fly walking on a sheet of graph paper is

⃗  ˆ ˆ
D = (−5.00 i − 3.00 j)cm
, find its magnitude and direction.

In many applications, the magnitudes and directions of vector quantities are known and we need to
find the resultant of many vectors. For example, imagine 400 cars moving on the Golden Gate Bridge in
San Francisco in a strong wind. Each car gives the bridge a different push in various directions and we
would like to know how big the resultant push can possibly be. We have already gained some
experience with the geometric construction of vector sums, so we know the task of finding the resultant
by drawing the vectors and measuring their lengths and angles may become intractable pretty quickly,
leading to huge errors. Worries like this do not appear when we use analytical methods. The very first
step in an analytical approach is to find vector components when the direction and magnitude of a
vector are known.

Ax
Let us return to the right triangle in Figure 2.18. The quotient of the adjacent side to the θA
Ax/A = cos θA
hypotenuse A is the cosine function of direction angle , , and the quotient of the Ay θA Ay /A = sin
θA
opposite side to the hypotenuse A is the sine function of , . When magnitude A θA
and direction are known, we can solve these relations for the scalar components: Ax =

A cos θA

{ . Ay = A sin θA (2.17)
When calculating vector components with Equation 2.17, care must be taken with the angle. The
θA
direction angle of a vector is the angle measured counterclockwise from the positive direction on the
x-axis to the vector. The clockwise measurement gives a negative angle.

EXAMPLE 2.5

Components of Displacement Vectors

A rescue party for a missing child follows a search dog named Trooper. Trooper wanders a
lot and makes many trial sniffs along many different paths. Trooper eventually finds the child
and the story has a happy ending, but his displacements on various legs seem to be truly
convoluted. On one of the legs he walks 200.0 m southeast, then he runs north some 300.0
30°
m. On the third leg, he examines the scents carefully for 50.0 m in the direction west of
north. On the fourth leg, Trooper goes directly south for 80.0 m, picks up a fresh scent and
23°
turns west of south for 150.0 m. Find the scalar components of Trooper’s displacement
vectors and his displacement vectors in vector component form for each leg.

Strategy
Let’s adopt a rectangular coordinate system with the positive x-axis in the direction of
geographic east, with the positive y-direction pointed to geographic north. Explicitly, the unit
ˆ
i jˆ
vector of the x-axis points east and the unit vector of the y-axis points north. Trooper makes
five legs, so there are five displacement vectors. We start by identifying their magnitudes
and direction angles, then we use Equation 2.17 to find the scalar components of the
displacements and Equation 2.12 for the displacement vectors.

Solution
L1 = 200.0 m
On the first leg, the displacement magnitude is and the direction is southeast. θ1 45°
For direction angle we can take either measured clockwise from the east direction or
45° + 270° measured counterclockwise from the east direction.
With the first choice,
θ1 = −45° θ1 = +315°
. With the second choice, . We can use either one of these two angles. The
components are

L1x = L1 cos θ1 = (200.0 m) cos 315° = 141.4 m,

L1y = L1 sin θ1 = (200.0 m)sin 315° = −141.4 m.

The displacement vector of the first leg is

ˆ ˆ ˆ
L⃗ 1 = L1x i + = (141.4 − 141.4 ) m. L1y j i jˆ

On the second leg of Trooper’s wanderings, the magnitude of the displacement is

L2 = 300.0 m θ2 = +90°
and the direction is north. The direction angle is . We obtain the following
results:
 ˆ ˆ
L2x L2y L⃗ 2 L2x i + = (300.0 m) . L2y j jˆ
= =
L2 cos θ2 = (300.0 m) cos 90° = 0.0 ,
= L3 = 50.0 m 30°
L2 sin θ2 = (300.0 m)sin 90° = 300.0 m,
On the third leg, the displacement magnitude is and the direction is west of north. The
direction angle measured counterclockwise from the eastern direction is θ3 = 30° + 90° =
+120°
. This gives the following answers:

=
L3x L3y L⃗ 3
=
L3 cos θ3 = (50.0 m) cos 120° = −25.0 m, =
L3 sin θ3 = (50.0 m)sin 120° = +43.3 m, L3x i +
ˆ ˆ ˆ
= (−25.0 + 43.3 )m. L3y j i jˆ L4 = 80.0 m
On the fourth leg of the excursion, the displacement magnitude is and the θ4 = −90° θ4 =
+270°
direction is south. The direction angle can be taken as either or . We obtain

L4 cos θ4 = (80.0 m) cos (−90°) ˆ ˆ

L4x L4y L⃗ 4 (−80.0 m) . L4y j jˆ
== = 0 , L4 sin θ4 = (80.0 m)sin

= (−90°) = −80.0 m, L4x i + = L5 = 150.0 m

On the last leg, the magnitude is and the angle is
θ5 = −23° + 270° = +247° (23° west of south), which gives
L cos = (150.0 m) cos 247° = m)sin 247° = −138.1 m, L + =
L5x L5y L⃗ 5
−58.6 m, 5 θ5 L5 sin θ5 = (150.0 (−58.6 − 138.1 )m. ˆ L ˆ ˆ ˆ
=== 5x i 5y j i j

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.6

If Trooper runs 20 m west before taking a rest, what is his displacement vector?

Polar Coordinates
To describe locations of points or vectors in a plane, we need two orthogonal directions. In the
ˆ
i jˆ
Cartesian coordinate system these directions are given by unit vectors and along the x-axis and the y-
axis, respectively. The Cartesian coordinate system is very convenient to use in describing
displacements and velocities of objects and the forces acting on them. However, it becomes
cumbersome when we need to describe the rotation of objects. When describing rotation, we usually
work in the polar coordinate system.

In the polar coordinate system, the location of point P in a plane is given by two polar coordinates
 (Figure 2.20). The first polar coordinate is the radial coordinate r, which is the distance of point P from
φ
the origin. The second polar coordinate is an angle that the radial vector makes with some chosen
direction, usually the positive x-direction. In polar coordinates, angles are measured in radians, or
rads. The radial vector is attached at the origin and points away from the origin to point P. This radial
ˆ
ˆr t

direction is described by a unit radial vector . The second unit vector is a vector orthogonal to the ˆr
ˆ
+tφ
radial direction . The positive direction indicates how the angle changes in the counterclockwise
direction. In this way, a point P that has coordinates (x, y) in the rectangular system (r, φ)
can be described equivalently in the polar coordinate system by the two polar coordinates . r⃗ 
Equation 2.17 is valid for any vector, so we can use it to express the x- and y-coordinates of vector . In
this way, we obtain the connection between the polar coordinates and rectangular coordinates of point
P:

x = r cos φ
{ . y = r sin φ (2.18)

ˆr
Figure 2.20 Using polar coordinates, the unit vector defines the positive direction along the
ˆ
t
radius r (radial direction) and, orthogonal to it, the unit vector defines the positive direction of
φ
rotation by the angle .

EXAMPLE 2.6

Polar Coordinates
A treasure hunter finds one silver coin at a location 20.0 m away from a dry well in the
20°
direction north of east and finds one gold coin at a location 10.0 m away from the well in 20°
 the direction north of west. What are the polar and rectangular coordinates of these
findings with respect to the well?

Strategy
The well marks the origin of the coordinate system and east is the + x-direction. We identify
rS = 20.0 m
radial distances from the locations to the origin, which are (for the silver coin) rG = 10.0 m
20°
and (for the gold coin). To find the angular coordinates, we convert to 20° = π20/180 =
π/9
radians: . We use Equation 2.18 to find the x- and y-coordinates of the coins.

Solution
φS = π/9
The angular coordinate of the silver coin is , whereas the angular coordinate of φG = π −
π/9 = 8π/9
the gold coin is . Hence, the polar coordinates of the silver coin are (rS, φS) = (20.0 m,
π/9) (rG, φG) = (10.0 m, 8π/9)
and those of the gold coin are . We
substitute these coordinates into Equation 2.18 to obtain rectangular coordinates. For the
gold coin, the coordinates are

xG = rG cos φG = (10.0 m) cos 8π/9 = −9.4 m

{ ⇒ ( , ) = (−9.4 m, 3.4 m). yG = rG sin φG = (10.0 m)sin 8π/9 = 3.4 mxG yG

For the silver coin, the coordinates are

xS = rS cos φS = (20.0 m) cos π/9 = 18.9 m
{ ⇒ ( , ) = (18.9 m, 6.8 m). yS = rS sin φS = (20.0 m)sin π/9 = 6.8 mxS yS

Vectors in Three Dimensions

To specify the location of a point in space, we need three coordinates ( x, y, z), where coordinates x and
y specify locations in a plane, and coordinate z gives a vertical position above or below the plane.
Three-dimensional space has three orthogonal directions, so we need not two but three unit vectors to
ˆ ˆ
define a three-dimensional coordinate system. In the Cartesian coordinate system, the first two unit i j

kˆ
vectors are the unit vector of the x-axis and the unit vector of the y-axis . The third unit vector is the
direction of the z-axis (Figure 2.21). The order in which the axes are labeled, which is the order in which
ˆ ˆ
the three unit vectors appear, is important because it defines the orientation of the coordinate i j kˆ
system. The order x-y-z, which is equivalent to the order - - , defines the standard right-handed
coordinate system (positive orientation).
 Figure 2.21 Three unit vectors define a Cartesian system in three-dimensional space. The
order in which these unit vectors appear defines the orientation of the coordinate system.
The order shown here defines the right-handed orientation.

⃗ 
A A⃗ x = Ax iˆ
⃗  ˆ
In three-dimensional space, vector has three vector components: the x-component , A A⃗ y = Ay j

A⃗ 
which is the part of vector along the x-axis; the y-component , which is the part of A⃗ z = Azkˆ
along the y-axis; and the z-component , which is the part of the vector along the z-axis. A vector in
three-dimensional space is the vector sum of its three vector components (Figure 2.22):
⃗  ˆ ˆ b(xb, yb, zb) e(xe, ye , ze)
Ax i Ay j Azkˆ
If we know the coordinates of its origin and of its
A=++.
end , its scalar Ax Ay
(2.19)

components are obtained by taking their differences: and are given by Equation 2.13 and the z
component is given by

Az = ze − zb. Magnitude A is obtained by generalizing Equation

2.15 to three dimensions: 2 2 2
xA yA z
A=A++.
(2.20) (2.21)
−−−−−−−−−−−
√

This expression for the vector magnitude comes from applying the Pythagorean theorem twice. As
−−−−−−−
√
A 2 x + A2 y
2 2
seen in Figure 2.22, the diagonal in the xy-plane has length and its square adds to the A z A
square to give . Note that when the z-component is zero, the vector lies entirely in the xy-plane and its
description is reduced to two dimensions.

Figure 2.22 A vector in three-dimensional space is the vector sum of its three
vector components.

EXAMPLE 2.7

Takeoff of a Drone
During a takeoff of IAI Heron (Figure 2.23), its position with respect to a control tower is 100 m
above the ground, 300 m to the east, and 200 m to the north. One minute later, its position is
250 m above the ground, 1200 m to the east, and 2100 m to the north. What is the drone’s
displacement vector with respect to the control tower? What is the magnitude of its
displacement vector?

Figure 2.23 The drone IAI Heron in flight. (credit: SSgt Reynaldo Ramon, USAF)
Strategy
We take the origin of the Cartesian coordinate system as the control tower. The direction of

iˆ
ˆ
the +x-axis is given by unit vector to the east, the direction of the +y-axis is given by unit j

kˆ
vector to the north, and the direction of the + z-axis is given by unit vector , which points up
from the ground. The drone’s first position is the origin (or, equivalently, the beginning) of the
displacement vector and its second position is the end of the displacement vector.

Solution
We identify b(300.0 m, 200.0 m, 100.0 m) and e(1200 m, 2100 m, 250 m), and use Equation
2.13 and Equation 2.20 to find the scalar components of the drone’s displacement vector:

Dx = xe − xb = 1200.0 m − 300.0 m = 900.0 m,

⎧
⎪
⎩⎨
Dy = ye − yb = 2100.0 m − 200.0 m = 1900.0 m,
⎪
Dz = ze − zb = 250.0 m − 100.0 m = 150.0 m.

⃗  ˆ
We substitute these components into Equation 2.19 to find the displacement vector: D = Dx i +

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
Dy j + Dzk = 900.0 m i + 1900.0 m j + 150.0 mk = (0.90 i + 1.90 j + 0.15kˆ

We substitute into Equation 2.21 to find the magnitude of the displacement:

2 2 −−−−−−−−−−−−−
(1.90 km)2(0.15 km)
 −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
√
−−−−−−−−−−−−
√ (0.90 km) + +
2 2 2
xD yD z
D = D + + = = 2.11 km.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.7

If the average velocity vector of the drone in the displacement in Example 2.7 is
ˆ ˆ ˆ
u⃗ = (15.0 i + 31.7 j + 2.5k )m/svector?
, what is the magnitude of the drone’s velocity