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UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO Al AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

PART A

1(A). Define Artificial Intelligence (AI).

The study of how to make computers do things at which at the moment, people are better.
Systems that think like humans
Systems that act like humans
Systems that think rationally
Systems that act rationally

1(B). Define Artificial Intelligence formulated by Haugeland.

The exciting new effort to make computers think machines with minds in the full and literal
sense.

1(C). Define Artificial Intelligence in terms of human performance.

The art of creating machines that performs functions that require intelligence when performed by
people.

1(D). Define Artificial Intelligence in terms of rational acting.

A field of study that seeks to explain and emulate intelligent behaviors in terms of computational
processes-Schalkoff. The branch of computer science that is concerned with the automation of
intelligent behavior-Luger & Stubblefield.

1(E). Define Artificial in terms of rational thinking.

The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models-Charniak & McDermott.
The study of the computations that make it possible to perceive, reason and act-Winston.

2. What is meant by Turing test?

To conduct this test we need two people and one machine. One person will be an interrogator
(i.e.) questioner, will be asking questions to one person and one machine. Three of them will be
in a separate room.
Interrogator knows them just as A and B. so it has to identify which is the person and
machine.
The goal of the machine is to make Interrogator believe that it is the person’s answer. If machine
succeeds by fooling Interrogator, the machine acts like a human. Programming a computer to
pass Turing test is very difficult.

3. What is called materialism?

An alternative to dualism is materialism, which holds that the entire world operate according to
physical law. Mental process and consciousness are therefore part of physical world, but
inherently unknowable they are beyond rational understanding.

4. What are the capabilities, computer should posses to pass Turing test?
Natural Language Processing
Knowledge representation

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Automated reasoning
Machine Learning

5. Define Total Turing Test?

The test which includes a video signals so that the interrogator can test the perceptual abilities of
the machine.

6. What are the capabilities computers needs to pass total Turing test?
Computer Vision
Robotics

7. Define Rational Agent.

It is one that acts, so as to achieve the best outcome (or) when there is uncertainty, the best
expected outcome.

8. Define Agent.
An Agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving (i.e.) understanding its environment
through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators.

9. Define an Omniscient agent.

An omniscient agent knows the actual outcome of its action and can act accordingly; but
omniscience is impossible in reality.

10. What are the factors that a rational agent should depend on at any given time?
1. The performance measure that defines degree of success.
2. Ever thing that the agent has perceived so far. We will call this complete perceptual history the
percept sequence.
3. When the agent knows about the environment.
4. The action that the agent can perform.

11. Define Architecture.

The action program will run on some sort of computing device which is called as Architecture

12. List the various type of agent program.

Simple reflex agent program.
Agent that keep track of the world.
Goal based agent program.
Utility based agent program

13. Give the structure of agent in an environment?

Agent interacts with environment through sensors and actuators.
An Agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving (i.e.) understanding its environment
through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators.

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14. Define Percept Sequence.

An agent’s choice of action at any given instant can depend on the entire percept sequence
observed to elate.

15. Define Agent Function.

It is a mathematical description which deals with the agent’s behavior that maps the given
percept sequence into an action.

16. Define Agent Program.

Agent function for an agent will be implemented by agent program.

17. How agent should act?

Agent should act as a rational agent. Rational agent is one that does the right thing, (i.e.) right
actions will cause the agent to be most successful in the environment.

18. How to measure the performance of an agent?

Performance measure of an agent is got by analyzing two tasks. They are How and When
actions.

19. Define performance measures.

Performance measure embodies the criterion for success of an agent’s behavior.

20. Define Ideal Rational Agent.

For each possible percept sequence, a rational agent should select an action that is expected to
maximize its performance measure, given the evidence provided by the percept sequence and
whatever built in knowledge the agent has.

21. Define Omniscience.

An Omniscience agent knows the actual outcome of its actions and can act accordingly.

22. Define Information Gathering.

Doing actions in order to modify future percepts sometimes called information gathering.

23. What is autonomy?

A rational agent should be autonomous. It should learn what it can do to compensate for partial
(or) in correct prior knowledge.

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24. What is important for task environment?

PEAS → P- Performance measure
E - Environment
A- Actuators
S – Sensors
Example
Interactive English tutor performance measure maximize student’s score on test.
Environment
Set of students testing Agency
Actuators
Display exercises suggestions, corrections.
Sensors
Keyboard entry
25. What is environment program?
It defines the relationship between agents and environments.
26. List the properties of environments.
o Fully Observable Vs Partially Observable
o Deterministic Vs Stochastic
o Episodic Vs Sequential
o Static Vs Dynamic
o Discrete Vs Continuous
o Single Agent Vs Multi agent
a. Competitive Multi agent
b.Co – operative Multi agent

27. What is Environment Class (EC) and Environment Generator (EG)?

EC – It is defined as a group of environment.
EG – It selects the environment from environment class in which the agent has to Run.

28. What is the structure of intelligent Agent?

Intelligent Agent = Architecture + Agent Program

29. Define problem solving agent.

Problem solving agent is one kind of goal based agent, where the agent
Should select one action from sequence of actions which lead to desirable states.

30. List the steps involved in simple problem solving technique.

i. Goal formulation
ii. Problem formulation
iii. Search
iv. Solution
v. Execution phase

31. What are the different types of problem?

Single state problem, multiple state problems, Contingency problem, Exploration problem.

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32. What are the components of a problem?

There are four components. They are
i. initial state
ii. Successor function
iii. Goal test
iv. Path cost
v. Operator
vi. state space
vii. path

33. Define State Space.

The set of all possible states reachable from the initial state by any sequence of action is called
state space.

34. Define Path.

A path in the state space is a sequence of state connected by sequence of actions.

35. Define Path Cost.

A function that assigns a numeric cost to each path, which is the sum of the cost of the each
action along the path.

36. Give example problems for Artificial Intelligence.

i. Toy problems
ii. Real world problems

37. Give example for real world end toy problems.

Real world problem examples:
i. Airline travel problem.
ii. Touring problem.
iii. Traveling salesman problem.
iv. VLSI Layout problem
v. Robot navigation
vi. Automatic Assembly
vii. Internet searching
Toy problem Examples:
Vacuum world problem.
8 – Queen problem
8 – Puzzle problem

38. Define search tree.

The tree which is constructed for the search process over the state space is called search tree.

39. Define search node.

The root of the search tree that is the initial state of the problem is called search node.

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40. Define fringe.

The collection of nodes that have been generated but not yet expanded, this collection is called
fringe or
frontier.

41. List the performance measures of search strategies.

i. Completeness
ii. Optimality
iii. Time complexity
iv. Space complexity

42. Define branching factor (b).

The number of nodes which is connected to each of the node in search tree is called Branching
factor.

43. Differentiate Blind Search and Heuristic Search.

Blind search Heuristic search

i) No information about the path cost from the i) We have some information like minimum
current state to goal state. path caused to move

ii) Problem is solved with the information we ii) Problem can be solved by the information
which we know. which is already given.

iii) Example iii) Example

a) Breadth first search a) Best first search

b) Uniform cost search b) Greedy search

c) Depth first Search c) A* search

d) Depth limited search

e) Iterative deepening search

f) Bi – Directional Search

44. Define Backtracking search.

The variant of depth first search called backtracking search. Only one successor is generated at a
time rather than all successor, partially expanded node remembers which successor generate next
is called

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Backtracking search.

45. Define Uniform cost search.

Uniform cost search expands the node ‘n’ with the lowest path cost instead of expanding the
shallowest node.

46. Define Depth first search.

It expands the deepest node in the current fringe of the search tree.

47. Define depth limited search.

The problem of unbounded tress can be avoided by supplying depth limit 1(i.e.) nodes at depth 1
are treated as if they have no successors. This is called Depth Limited search.

PART – B

1. Describe briefly the various problem characteristics?

Heuristic search is a very general method applicable to a large class of problem. It
includes a variety of techniques. In order to choose an appropriate method, it is necessary to
analyze the problem with respect to the following considerations.
A very large and composite problem can be easily solved if it can be broken into smaller
problems and recursion could be used. Suppose we want to solve.
Ex:- ∫ x2 + 3x+sin2x cos 2x dx
This can be done by breaking it into three smaller problems and solving each by applying
specific rules. Adding the results the complete solution is obtained.
1. Ignorable problems Ex:- theorem proving
· In which solution steps can be ignored.
2. Recoverable problems Ex:- 8 puzzle
· In which solution steps can be undone
3. Irrecoverable problems Ex:- Chess
· In which solution steps can’t be undone good solution absolute or relative
There are two categories of problems. In one, like the water jug and 8 puzzle problems,
we are satisfied with the solution, unmindful of the solution path taken, whereas in the other
category not just any solution is acceptable.
Problem Classification
Actual problems are examined from the point of view , the task here is examine an input and
decide which of a set of known classes.
Ex:- Problems such as medical diagnosis , engineering design.

2. Explain in detail about Uninformed Search and Informed Search Strategies.

Uninformed Search Strategies have no additional information about states beyond that
provided in the problem definition.

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Strategies that know whether one non goal state is ―more promising than another are
called informed search or heuristic search strategies.
There are five uninformed search strategies as given below.
o Breadth-first search
o Uniform-cost search
o Depth-first search
o Depth-limited search
o Iterative deepening search

3. Explain in detail about Depth first search Algorithm?

The h function can be extended to be applicable to (non-empty) paths. The heuristic value
of a path is the heuristic value of the node at the end of the path. That is:
h(⟨no,...,nk⟩)=h(nk)
A simple use of a heuristic function is to order the neighbors that are added to the stack
representing the frontier in depth-first search. The neighbors can be added to the frontier so that
the

best neighbor is selected first. This is known as heuristic depth first search. This search chooses
the locally best path, but it explores all paths from the selected path before it selects another path.
Although it is often used, it suffers from the problems of depth-fist search.
Another way to use a heuristic function is to always select a path on the frontier with the
lowest heuristic value. This is called best-first search. It usually does not work very well; it can
follow paths that look promising because they are close to the goal, but the costs of the paths
may keep increasing.

4. Discuss in detail about Constraints Satisfaction Problem.

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Constraint satisfaction is the process of finding a solution to a set of constraints that impose
conditions that the variables must satisfy. A solution is therefore a set of values for the variables
that satisfies all constraints—that is, a point in the feasible region.
The techniques used in constraint satisfaction depend on the kind of constraints being
considered. Often used are constraints on a finite domain, to the point that constraint satisfaction
problems are typically identified with problems based on constraints on a finite domain. Such
problems are usually solved via search, in particular a form of backtracking or local search.
Constraint propagation are other methods used on such problems; most of them are
incomplete in general, that is, they
may solve the problem or prove it unsatisfiable, but not always.Constraint propagation methods
are also used in conjunction with search to make a given problem simpler to solve. Other
considered kinds of constraints are on real or rational numbers; solving problems on these
constraints is done via variable elimination or the simplex algorithm.
Complexity
Solving a constraint satisfaction problem on a finite domain is an NP complete problem
with respect to the domain size. Research has shown a number of tractable subcases, some
limiting the allowed constraint relations, some requiring the scopes of constraints to form a tree,
possibly in a reformulated version of the problem. Research has also established relationship of
the constraint satisfaction problem with problems in other areas such as finite model theory.

5. Explain in details about Production System?

Types of Production Systems.
A Knowledge representation formalism consists of collections of condition-action
rules(Production Rules or Operators), a database which is modified in accordance with the rules,
and a Production System Interpreter which controls the operation of the rules i.e
The 'control mechanism' of a Production System, determining the order in which
Production Rules are fired. A system that uses this form of knowledge representation is called a
production system.
A production system consists of rules and factors. Knowledge is encoded in a declarative
from which comprises of a set of rules of the form
Situation ------------ Action
SITUATION that implies ACTION.
Example:-
IF the initial state is a goal state THEN quit.
The major components of an AI production system are
i. A global database
ii. A set of production rules and
iii. A control system
The goal database is the central data structure used by an AI production system. The
production system. The production rules operate on the global database. Each rule has a
precondition that is either satisfied or not by the database. If the precondition is satisfied, the rule
can be applied.

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Application of the rule changes the database. The control system chooses which
applicable rule should be applied and ceases computation when a termination condition on the
database is satisfied. If several rules are to fire at the same time, the control system resolves the
conflicts.

Four classes of production systems:-

1. A monotonic production system
2. A non monotonic production system
3. A partially commutative production system
4. A commutative production system.

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