Chapter 4

Transient and Steady-State-Response Analyses:

Standard test signals, transient response of first
order systems, second order systems and higher
order systems, concept of dominant poles,
steady state error and type of systems

1
 Test input signals
The standard test input signals commonly used are:

• Step input
• Ramp input
• Parabolic input
• Sinusoidal input
• Unit impulse input
2
 Representation of test signals
Input time domain frequency domain
1
• Step: 1(t ), t  0
s
1
• Ramp: t, t0
s2
1 2 1
• Parabolic: t t0
2 s3
A
• sinusoidal: A sin t
s2   2

3
 Standard test signal

The standard test signals are of the general form:

r (t )  t n

And its Laplace transform is:

n!
R ( s )  n 1
s

4
 Test Signal Significance
• With these test signals, mathematical and
experimental analyses of control systems can be
carried out easily since the signals are very simple
functions of time.
• Which of these typical signals to use for analyzing
system characteristics may be determined by the form
• If the inputs to a control system are gradually changing
functions of time, then a ramp function of time may be
a good test signal.
• Similarly, if a system is subjected to sudden
disturbances, a step function of time may be a good
test signal,

5
 Performance indices

Transient Performance:

• Time delay t d
• Rise time t r
• Peak time t p
• Settling time t s
• Percent overshoot %
Steady-state Performance: Steady-state error

6
Transients Analysis

7
 Order of System
• The order of a system is defined as being the
highest power of derivative in the differential
equation, or being the highest power of ‘s’ in
the denominator of the transfer function.
• A first-order system only has ‘s’ to the power
one in the denominator, while a second-order
system has the highest power of ‘s’ in the
denominator being two.

8
 Exercise 1
What are the orders of the systems described
by the following transfer functions:

9
Transients Response of a first-
order system

10
 Response of a first-order system
The general form of first order system
Ty (t )  y (t )  r (t )
Taking Laplace transform
Y (s) 1
T (s)  
R( s ) Ts  1

11
 Example 2: First Order System
Mechanical System: m is the mass, u(t) is the
external force, y(t) is the velocity and b is the
friction coefficient. By Newton’s law, we have the
following differential equation:

dy(t )
m  by(t )  u (t )
dt
dy(t)/dt=acceleration,
u(t)=ma+bv

12
 Example 3: Electrical System First
v (t)
Order Circuits
+ r - iL(t)
ic(t)
+
R
+ +
vs(t) C vc(t) is(t) R L vL(t)
- -
-

KVL around the loop: KCL at the node:

vr(t) + vc(t) = vs(t)
ir+iL=is
ic=c dv/dt t
v(t ) 1
  v( x)dx  is (t )
dvc (t ) R L 
RC  vc (t )  vs (t )
dt L diL (t )
 iL (t )  is (t )
Note: kvl =Kirchhoff's Voltage Law R dt
kcl =Kirchhoff's current laws 13
 The Time Constant
• The complementary solution for any 1st order
circuit is x (t )  Ke t /t
c

• For an RC circuit, t = RC
• For an RL circuit, t = L/R

14
What Does Xc(t) Look Like?
t /t t = 10-4
xc (t )  e

• t is the amount of time necessary

for an exponential to decay to
36.7% of its initial value.
• -1/t is the initial slope of an
exponential with an initial value of
1.

t
15
Why there is a transient response?
• The voltage across a capacitor cannot be
changed instantaneously.

 
VC (0 )  VC (0 )

• The current across an inductor cannot be

changed instantaneously.
 
I L (0 )  I L (0 )
 Unit step of first order system

• R(s) = 1/s, and therefore the unit-step

1
response is: Y ( s ) 
s(Ts  1)
• Expanding Y(s) into partial fractions:
1 T 1 T
Y (s)    
s Ts  1 s s  1
T
• Take the inverse Laplace transform:
y (t )  1  e t T , t  0
17
Unit response of first order system

1
Y ( s)  y (t )  1  e t T , t  0
s(Ts  1)

• The solution has two parts:

– a steady-state response: yss (t )  1
– and a transient response: yt (t )  et T which decays
to zero as t  

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 Unit response of first order system
1
Y ( s)  y (t )  1  e t T , t  0
s(Ts  1)

•At t = T, y(T) = 1 – e-1 = 0.632. T is

called the time constant, and it is
the time it takes for the step
response to rise to 63.2% of its
final value.
• y(2T) = 0.865; y(3T) = 0.95; y(4T)
= 0.982; y(5T) = 0.993 ... It can be
seen that for t ≥ 4T, the response
y(t) remains within 2% of the final
value(at t/T=6); this time is
known as the settling time, Ts.

19
 Unit response of first order system
1
Y ( s)  y (t )  1  e t T , t  0
s(Ts  1)
•The rise time, Tr, is defined as the
time for the waveform to go from
10% to 90% of its final
value.
• The steady-state error is the error
after the transient response has
decayed leaving only the continuous
response. The error signal:
e(t) = r(t) - y(t) = 1 - 1 + e-t/T = e-t/T
•As t approaches infinity, e-t/T
approaches zero and the steady-state
error is:

ess  e()  lim[r (t )  y(t )]  0

t 

20
 Unit response of first order system
1
Y ( s)  y (t )  1  e t T , t  0
s(Ts  1)

•The larger the time constant T

is, the slower the system
response is.
• It is noted that the transient
response dominates the
response of the system at
times ‘immediately’ after the
input is applied and can make
significant contribution to the
system response when the
time constant is large.

21
 Unit ramp response of first order
system

Expanding Y(s) into partial

fractions:
• The input, r(t) = t for t 1 T 2
T
≥ 0. Y ( s)  2  
s s Ts  1
• Laplace transform: R(s) • Taking The inverse L.T.
= 1/s2. y(t) = t - T + Te-t/T, t≥ 0.
• The output transform: • Steady-state error:
Y (s) 
1 1 ess  e()  lim[r (t )  y(t )]  T
t 
s 2 Ts  1
Where r(t)=t
22
Unit ramp response of first order
system

23
 Unit -impulse response of first order
system
•The unit-impulse input, r(t) = δ(t), t
≥0

•Laplace transform: R(s) = 1.

1
• The output transform: Y ( s )  Ts  1

•Taking the inverse Laplace

transform:
y(t) = e-t/T/T, t ≥ 0.

Note that the impulse input yields

the transfer function of the system
as output.

24
 Response of first-order system

• Unit step response (No steady-state error)

• Unit impulse response ( transfer function)

• Unit ramp response (Constant steady-state error)

25
Transients Response of a second-
order system

26
 Second order mechanical system
• For the mechanical system
shown in the figure, m is the
mass, k is the spring
constant, b is the friction
coefficient, u(t) is the
external force and y(t) is the
displacement.
• From Newton’s second law
input force =o/p force+loses=
ma+bv+kd d 2 y (t ) dy(t )
m b  ky(t )  u (t )
dt 2 dt
27
 Second order electrical system
Electrical system: RLC circuit .
Using kirchoff’s law:
u(t)=Ri(t) + Ldi(t)/dt + y(t)

where VL=L(di/dt)
i=C(dv/dt)=C(d y(t)/dt)

28
 Undamped,underdamped ,critically
damped & overdamped
• For example, consider a door that uses a spring to close the door once open.
This can lead to any of the above types of damping depending on the
strength of the damping.
• If the door is undamped it will swing back and forth forever at a particular
resonant frequency.
• If it is underdamped it will swing back and forth with decreasing size of the
swing until it comes to a stop.
• If it is critically damped then it will return to closed as quickly as possible
without oscillating.
• Finally, if it is overdamped it will return to closed without oscillating but
more slowly depending on how overdamped it is. Different levels of
damping are desired for different types of systems.

29
 Response and performance of a
second-order system
• Model of 2nd-order system
Y ( s) 2
T ( s)   2
R( s) s  2 s   2

• Roots of characteristic equation (Poles)

s1, 2   n   n   1
2

The response depends on and n

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Response and performance of a
second-order system

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 response of 2nd-order system

• If   0, 2 positive real-part roots,unstable

• If 0    1, Complex conjugate roots,underdamped
• If  1 ,2 equal negative real roots, critically damped
• If   1, 2 distinct negative real roots, overdamped
• If   0, 2 pure imaginary roots,undamped

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response of 2nd-order system

33
 Step response of a second order
system
• Critically damped case: 1

From eqn of y(s) -- S1= -wn,s2= -wn

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 Step response of a second order
system
• Critically damped case  1

35
 Step response of a second order
system
• Overdamped case:  1

36
 Step response of a second order
system
• Overdamped case:  1

37
 Step response of a second order
system
• Overdamped case:  1

38
 Step response of a second order
system
• Overdamped case:  1

39
 Step response of a second order
system
• Underdamped case: 0   1

40
 Step response of a second order
system
• Underdamped case: 0   1

41
 Step response of a second order
system
• Underdamped case: 0   1

42
0  1

43
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Transient system specifications

46
Transient system specifications

47
Transient system specifications

48
Ramp response of second-order
system

49
Impulse response of second-order system

Similar result to slide 33

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steady state error

51
 steady state error
Consider the simplest feedback configuration of a single-input single-output system
given in Figure

Let the input signal U(s)=R(s) represent the Laplace transform of the desired output
(in this feedback configuration the desired output signal is used as an input signal);
then for H(s)=1, E(s) = R(s)-Y(s),
or
R( s)
E (s)  [Since E/R = (R-Y)/R = 1-Y/R = 1-G/(1+G) = 1/(1+G)
1  G (s) E=R/(1+G)]
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steady state error

53
Types of feedback control system

54
 Chapter 5

Stability Analysis: Definitions

based on impulse response, Routh-
Hurwitz stability criterion

55
 The Concept of Stability
The concept of stability can be
illustrated by a cone placed on
a plane horizontal surface.
A necessary and
sufficient condition for a
feedback system to be
stable is that all the
poles of the system
transfer function have
negative real parts.

A system is considered marginally stable if only certain bounded

inputs will result in a bounded output.
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 Concept of Stability
A stable system is a dynamic system with a
bounded response to a bounded input.
• A system is BIBO stable if every bounded
input excites a bounded output.
• BIBO stability is associated with the response
of the system with zero initial state. A
transfer matrix G(s) is BIBO stable if all its
poles have negative real part.

12/30/2017 COEG 304 58

 The Routh-Hurwitz Stability
Criterion
• The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is a necessary and
sufficient criterion for the stability of linear systems.
• It was discovered that all coefficients of the
characteristic polynomial must have the same sign and
non-zero if all the roots are in the left-hand plane.
• These requirements are necessary but not sufficient. If
the above requirements are not met, it is known that
the system is unstable. But, if the requirements are
met, we still must investigate the system further to
determine the stability of the system.
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion
states that the number of
roots of q(s) with positive real
parts is equal to the number
of changes in sign of the first
column of the Routh array.

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The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Case Two: Zeros in the first column while some elements of the row containing a
zero in the first column are nonzero.
If only one element in the array is z ero, it may be replaced w ith a small positiv e
number  that is allow ed to approach zero after completing the array.

5 4 3 2
q( s ) s  2s  2s  4s  11s  10

The Routh array is then:

s 5 1 2 11
s 4 2 4 10
s 3 b1 6 0
s 2 c1 10 0
s1 d1 0 0
s 0 10 0 0
w here:
2 2  1 4 4  2 6 12 6 c1  10
b1 0  c1 d1 6
2   c1
There are tw o sign changes in the first column due to the large negative number
calculated f or c1. Thus, the system is unstable because tw o roots lie in the
right half of the plane.
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Case Three: Zeros in the first column, and the other elements of the row containing
the zero are also zero.
This case occurs w hen the polynomial q(s) has zeros located sy metrically about the
origin of the s-plane, such as (s+)(s -) or (s+j)(s -j). This c ase is solved using
the auxiliary poly nomial, U(s), w hich is located in the row above the row containing
the zero entry in the Routh array.

3 2
q(s ) s  2 s  4s  K

Routh array: s3 1 4
s2 2 K
8 K
s1 2 0
s0 K 0
For a stable system w e require that 0<K<8
0s 8

For the marginally stable case, K=8, the s^1 row of the Routh array contains all zeros. The
auxiliary plynomial comes f rom the s^2 row .
U( s )
2
2s  Ks
0 2
2 s  8 2 
2s 4 2( s  j 2) ( s  j 2)

It c an be proven that U(s) is a f actor of the characteris tic polynomial:

q( s ) s2
U( s ) 2 Thus, w hen K=8, the factors of the characteristic polynomial are:

q( s ) ( s  2) ( s  j 2) ( s  j 2)
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Case Four: Repeated roots of the characteristic equation on the jw-axis.

With simple roots on the jw-axis, the system will

have a marginally stable behavior. This is not
the case if the roots are repeated. Repeated
roots on the jw-axis will cause the system to be
unstable. Unfortunately, the routh-array will fail
to reveal this instability.
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Example: Welding control

Using block diagram reduction we find that:

The Routh array is then: s4 1 11 Ka
s3 6 ( K  6)
s2 b3 Ka
s1 c3
s0 Ka
60  K b 3( K  6)  6 Ka
where: b 3 and c3
6 b3

For the system to be stable bothb 3 and c3 must be positive.

Using these equations a relationship can be determined for K and a .
The Relative Stability of Feedback
Control Systems
It is often necessary to know the
relative damping of each root to
the characteristic equation.
Relative system stability can be
measured by observing the
relative real part of each root. In
this diagram r2 is relatively more
stable than the pair of roots
labeled r1.

One method of determining the relative stability of each root is to

use an axis shift in the s-domain and then use the Routh array as
shown in Example 6.6 of the text.
 Design Example: Tracked Vehicle
Turning Control
Problem statement: Design the turning control for a tracked vehicle. Select K
and a so that the system is stable. The system is modeled below.
Design Example: Tracked Vehicle Turning Control

From block diagram,

T.F=Gc.G(s)/(1+ Gc.G(s))
 Design Example: Tracked Vehicle Turning Control

s4 1 17 Ka
s3 8 ( K  10) 0
s2 b3 Ka
s1 c3
s0 Ka

where
126  K b 3( K  10)  8Ka
b3 and c3
8 b3

Therefore,
K  126

K a  0

( K  10) ( 126  K)  64Ka  0

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