Module 1: Unit 2

What Philosophy and Science

Says About Self
From the Perspective of
Philosophy
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Philosophy of the Self
The Self has been defined as “as a unified being, essentially
connected to consciousness, awareness, and agency (or, at
least, with the faculty of rational choice) “. Different
philosophers have come up with more specific characteristics
of the Self, and over time, these meanings have transformed
from pure abstractions to explanations that hold scientific
evidences.
We are searching for the idea
behind the things that we
see….
What is man to you?
Are contemporary men the same with ancient men?
The Philosophy of the Self
The ancient philosophy of self can be traced back from the
ancient Greek aphorism (one of 147 aphorisms prominently
inscribed in the temple of Apollo at Delphi), “know thyself”
(Greek: γνῶθι σεαυτόν, transliterated: gnōthi seauton).

• The aphorism (or principle) was used by Socrates as his

guiding principle that he passed on to his students. Since
Socrates as a guru preferred to engage his students in
endless discussion, it is said that he had never written
down any of his ideas but instead untiringly discussed
concepts and principles with his students. Socrates believed
that the real self is not the physical body, but rather the
psyche (or soul). He further posited that the appearance of
the body is inferior to its functions.
 Socrates: Know Thyself

“The unexamined life is not worth

living” - Socrates
• - Bring inner self to light
Socrates
• From him came the popular Socratic Method
• “Man is a being who thinks and wills.”
• Puts more regard to the soul rather than the human body
• Soul – properly nurtured by knowledge, wisdom and virtues
The Doctrines of Socrates
• Knowledge is virtue.
• Socratic Irony
• The Art of Good Living
Knowledge is Virtue
• Someone who puts knowledge to good use is a wise one.

• Activity
Socratic Irony

• What I know is that I do not know...

• Recognition of ignorance
• Acknowledging that we do not know all

A B
• Socratic/dialectic method – search for final understanding.
The Art of Good Living

• Man’s nature is to know

about good life
• Knowing what is right
means doing what is right
The Self
▪ The immortal soul that, in some sense, “resides”, in the body and is
separated from it at death to be born again.

▪ After a period in the spirit world, he thinks that the soul is born with
some residual knowledge of its own nature and the nature of reality
which can be recovered by appropriate questioning.

▪ THE TRUE SELF IS NOT THE BODY BUT THE SOUL.

➢ Socrates said
a. The body is the slave.
b. The soul is the master.

▪ Socrates believed that the goal of life is happiness.

▪ How to become happy? To have virtue
▪ Virtue refers to moral qualities that is accepted.
▪ Virtue is the supreme good that makes a man happy.
The Philosophy of the Self
It was Plato, Socrates’ prized student who thoroughly expound
on Socrates ideas of self. Plato’s conceptualization of the Self
was profoundly introduced in his dialogue Phaedrus, which has
been a popular text for many decades in the subject of
Philosophy. The main idea in this dialogue is about truth-
seeking, and that the truth can be distinguished in two forms:
the metaphysical realm (mind) and the physical world (body).
Plato suggested that the existence or the truth about the
human self is fundamentally an intellectual entity whose
nature exists independent from the physical world. Plato
bifurcated the truth or reality into two: the “ontos” (ideal), the
ultimate reality which tend to be permanent and spiritual, and
the “phenomena” which refers to the manifestation of the
ideal. In contrast with ontos, phenomena is imperfect,
impermanent and inferior to the latter.
The Philosophy of the Self
Plato’s idea of truth about the human self was even more
expounded and formalized by his prized student, Aristotle.
While Plato emphasized the separation of ideal and
phenomenal existence (or being), Aristotle suggested that the
ideal is subsumed in the phenomena. Aristotle called ideal as
“essence” and the phenomena as “matter”. He also
emphasized that the two co-exist and are co-dependent, the
essence provides meaning and purpose to the matter, and the
matter provides substance and solidity to essence.
The Philosophy of the Self
Philosophy of the self has been defined through two distinct
philosophical lens:

Empiricism - derives explanations of the self from sensory and

bodily responses. We know things because we have
experienced it through our bodily senses.

Rationalism - there is innate knowledge; they differ in that

they choose different objects of innate knowledge.
Rationalism explains self from the standpoint of what is “ideal”
and the “truth”, not rooted in what is felt by the senses nor
our body.
The Philosophy of the Self
What are the different philosophical views of the Self?
There is abundance in literature that highlights the
similarities and contrasting standpoints of the self.
Socrates and Plato have explained the Self from a
theoretical and logical orientation; Aristotle was an
empiricist, deriving views of the self from physical and
scientific underpinnings. St. Augustine adopted the
views of Plato and infused it to his religious philosophy.
John Locke, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant were
empiricist philosophers; Rene Descartes was a dominant
rational philosopher during the Middle Ages. Among
contemporary philosophers, majority are empiricists:
Gilbert Ryle, Patricia Churchland, and Maurice
Merleau-Ponty have incorporated biological and
neuroscience in their philosophies.
 Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description
Philosophy of the Self
Classical Antiquity

Socrates Idealism Socratic • Knowledge is the personification of good

Philosophy while Ignorance is that of evil.
• Self-knowledge is the ultimate virtue. As the
ultimate virtue, it will lead to ultimate
happiness.
Plato Idealism Dualism • Moral virtue is rooted in the intellect and
and leads to happiness.
Idealism • Wisdom and knowledge leads to virtue which
will lead to happiness.

Aristotle Empiricist Aristotelian • Ideal is found inside the phenomena and the
Philosophy universals inside the particulars.
• Ideals are ESSENCE.
• Phenomena is MATTER.
• Matter has no form. Essence has no mass.
• Matter and Essence need each other.
Philosophy of the Self

Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description

Middle Agess
• All knowledge leads to God.
• Only the pure in heart can see God.
St. Augustine Platonism Neoplatonism • Love of God, faith in Him and
Understanding of his Gospel will
ultimately lead to Happiness.
 Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description
Philosophy of the Self
Renaissance
Descartes Rationalist Mind-body • “I think, therefore, I am.”
Dualism • The mind and soul can exist without the body.
• Establishing the distinction of soul from the body can
make people believe in the afterlife and the soul’s
immortality.
Locke Empiricist Theory of • It is in consciousness alone that identity exists, not
Personal on the body and soul.
Identity • There is a distinction between man and person.
• The soul may change, but consciousness remains
intact.
Hume Empiricist Skeptical • All knowledge passes through the senses.
Philosophy • Separate ideas can be joined in the mind.
• There is no self, only a bundle of perceptions.
Kant Rationalist Metaphysics • Reason is the final authority of morality.
/ Empiricist of the Self • There is the inner self and outer self;
• The inner self includes rational reasoning and
psychological state.
• The outer self includes the body and physical mind,
where representation occurs.
Distinction bet. The soul and body according to
Rene Descartes
The Soul The body

1. It is a conscious, thinking substance that 1. It is a material substance that changes

is unaffected by time. through time.

2. It is known only to itself (only you know 2 It can be doubted; the public can
your own mental event and others cannot correct claims abut the body.
correct your mental states.)

3. It is not made up of parts. It views the 3. It is made up of physical, quantifiable ,

entirely of itself with no hidden or divisible parts.
separate compartments. It is both
conscious and aware of itself at the same
time
 Sense of Self
• John Locke holds the personal identity (the self) is a mater of psychological
continuity.
• For him, personal identity is founded on consciousness (memory), and not
on substance of either the soul or the body.

• Personal identity is a concept about oneself that evolve over the course of
an individual’s life.
• It may include aspects of life that man has no control over, such as where
he grew up or the color of the skin, as well as the choices he makes like
how he spends his time and what he believes.

• Activity
▪ John Locke

▪ For humans, he creates this distinction

1. Man (our biological make up, similar to

animals)
2. Person (a “Self”, or what our identity consists
of)
Self according Immanuel Kant
1.Self is transcendental (independent of experience).
▪ Means the self is related to a spiritual or nonphysical realm.

2. The self is not in the body

❖it is outside body
❖does not have the qualities of the body.
❖Bodies qualities are rooted to the “self”
❖Knowledge bridges the self and material things together.
Components of the Self
1. Inner Self
▪ Interprets and coherently expresses what the senses gather.
▪ aware of alterations in your own state.
❖Includes rational intellect and psychological state such as …
➢Moods
➢Feelings
➢Sensations
➢Pleasure
➢pain
 Components of the Self

2. Outer Self
▪ Includes our senses and physical world.
▪ It gathers information from the external world through the senses, which the
inner self interprets and coherently expresses.
▪ The common boundary between the external world and the inner self.

▪ Kant argued that mind is not just a passive receiver of sense experience but
rather actively participates in knowing the object it experience.
David Hume: The Self is the Bundle Theory of
Mind

• He stated that there is no such thing as personal

identity because perceptions and feelings may come
and go.
David Hume: The Self is the Bundle Theory of
Mind
• Hume compared self to nation whereby a nation retains its being a
nation not by a single core or identity but by being composed of
different constantly changing elements, such as people, systems,
culture and beliefs.

• In the same manner, the self according to Hume is not just one
impression but a mixed and a loose cohesion of various personal
experiences. There is no constant impression that endures through
out your life.
David Hume: The Self is the Bundle Theory of
Mind
▪ A Scottish philosopher, economist, historian during the age of
enlightenment.
▪ He does not believe in the existence of self.
▪ He stressed that your perception are only active as long as you are
conscious.
▪ Once your perception is removed in the case of being asleep, you can
no longer sense yourself then you also cease to exist.
▪ Its like a light bulb that may be switch on or off.
▪ Self could not be verified through observation
▪ Self is the series of incoherent impressions received by the senses.

❖A mixed and a loose cohesion of various personal experience.

❖So for Hume, there is no permanent/unchanging self.
Philosophy of the Self Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description

Modern Times
Ryle Empiricist The Concept of • “I act, therefore, I am.”
Mind • The mind is not the seat of self.
• It is not a separate, parallel thing to our physical
body.
• The mind is a category mistake, brought about by
habitual use. The only way it can affect the other
is through the external world.
Churchland Empiricist Neurophilosop • A fully matured neuroscience will eliminate the
hy need for beliefs since “they are not real.”
• The physical brain gives us a sense of self.
Merleau- Existentialism Phenomenolog • Both empiricism and intellectualism are flawed
Ponty Empiricist y of Perception in nature.
• “We are our bodies.”
• Our bodily experiences do not detach the
subject/object, mind/body, rational/irrational.
Churchlands’ view

• The sense of “self” originated from the brain itself.

• The “self” is a product of electromagnetic signals produced by the brain.

• The physical brain gives us a sense of “self”.

Example:
• Mental condition like depression is technically wrong to say that the
person is “out of his mind” because brain activity and shape appears to be
associated with mood disorder.
Ponty’s sense of self

1. Rejected the Cartisian mind-and body dualism.

2. Insisted that the mind and body are intrinsically connected.
3. Emphasized the primacy of the body in an experience.
4. Veered away from the established notion that the seat of consciousness is in the
mind.

• Self as an embodied subjectivity.

• All knowledge of ourselves and our world is based on subjective experiences.
• The mind is part of the body and the body is part of the mind.
• Physical body is an important part of the subjective self.
Philosophy of the Self Things to Ponder About
We have seen how philosophy of the self has evolved
from ancient to modern times. From conceptual
hypotheses of the self, modern times have seen the self
from scientific and biological standpoints.

➢ Do you agree with what these philosophers have concluded

about the self?
➢ Do you see how their explanations of the self apply to you in
the present?
➢ If you are to choose one particular philosophy of the Self,
what would it be and why?
Module 1. Introduction to Understanding the Self
Unit 2.a. What Philosophy Says About the Self
Module Assessment
Check your workbook:
• Exercise No. 1 . How Do I See My Self (p. 16)
• Exercise No. 2. How Do I See My Self and Others (p. 17)

Assignment No. 2
Metacognitive Reading Report (p. 18)
Readings:
• Chafee, J. (2013) Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the
Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson. 106-169
• Mahdi, M (1962). Alfarabi’s Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle.
• Speaks, J (2006). Ryle’s behaviorist view of the mind.
 Module 1: Unit 2
What Philosophy and Science
Says About Self
From the Perspective of
Biological and Social
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
Module 1. Introduction to Unit 2.a. What Philosophy
Says about the Self
Understanding the Self
This unit highlights how classical
This module tackles the fundamental and modern philosophical models
concepts and principles of the Self. This covers defined the Self, the evolution of
the different factors that contribute to one’s these philosophical frameworks
being, the philosophical and theoretical from ancient to contemporary
explanations about the self across generations times, and the relevance of the
of philosophers and theorists, as well as the philosophy of the self to how the
explanations of different fields of sciences younger generation define their
about the self and identity. own sense of self.

Unit 1. Social, Environmental, and other Unit 2.b. What Science Says
Life Factors (S.E.L.F) about the Self
This unit discusses the different
This unit introduces you to the journey of
aspects of science and how they
understanding the self. This will highlight the
explain the concept of the Self.
different factors (Social, Environmental,
Natural science and social
Biological, and other life factors) that contribute
sciences encompass a number of
to the development of the Self.
disciplines that have deliberated
on the nature of the Self. Such
discourses will be tackled in this
section.
Unit 2.b. What Science Says About the Self
This unit discusses the different fields of science
and how they explain the concept of Self. Natural
science and social sciences encompass a number
of disciplines that have deliberated on the nature
of Self. Such discourses will be tackled in this
section.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this Unit, students are expected to

demonstrate the following:

1. Define and explain the different scientific standpoints about the Self.
2. Synthesize and evaluate the different scientific perspectives of Self.
3. Come up with a comprehensive definition of self according to scientific outlooks.
Diagnostics
✓ Learning Checkpoint
Do you AGREE or DISAGREE?

➢ Philosophy and Science share the same views about the Self.

➢ Science encompasses biological evolution of self.

➢ Science explains how environments and contexts shape the self.

➢ Science makes use of systematic methodologies in conceptualizing the self.

➢ The physical aspect of the self is the only scientific standpoint that matters.
The Science of the Self
Science has invested much of its efforts in understanding
world phenomena, but none more so than in explaining
how human beings have evolved from its basic life forms to
its more complex make-up today. Science has been lexically
defined as “the intellectual and practical activity
encompassing the systematic study of the structure and
behavior of the physical and natural world through
observation and experiment.” Thus, attempts to explain
Self have been made from the perspective of scientific
methods. Further, scientific approaches to the study of the
Self is of two-fold: physical sciences and social sciences. The
former focuses on biological factors that make up the
human body, the underlying growth and maturational
mechanisms of people, and environmental influences that
contribute to human development, central focus of which is
the Self. On the other hand, social sciences is concerned
with institutions, society, and interpersonal relationships of
people living within society.
Biological Science
Science has made sufficient advances in explaining human
beings in the biological context. Beginning with the tenets of
Aristotle and his scientific approach to the study of human
experience, to the Natural Selection within the Evolutionary
theory of Charles Darwin, human development,
individuality, and inevitably the Self, has been defined,
analyzed, and explained according to specific mechanisms.

The human body has been explained from a number of

scientific standpoints. From a biological perspective,
genetics has been studied extensively by scientists and
doctors on how genes from both parents contribute to the
characteristics of their offspring.

The study of the human body from a physical perspective

has paved the way for a fuller understanding of the self, as
consciousness, deemed to be a fundamental core of the self,
is influenced by inner dynamics and environments.
Biological Science
New breakthroughs in the understanding of the self has
resulted in the emergence of new scientific fields of study:
NEUROPHILOSOPHY and PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY.

NEUROPHILOSOPHY
The study of Neurophilosophy is attributed to Paul and
Patricia Churchland. Neurophilosophy is concerned with the
association of the brain and the mind; in order to
understand the workings of the human mind, we must first
understand the brain, its functions, and wave activity. They
further argued that philosophical notions of free will,
common sense, and conscientiousness, we must be able to
explain it in the context of neuroscience as advances in this
field seemingly converge with how people think, feel, and
behave. In the context of the self, our consciousness,
worldviews, beliefs, and other human attributes are
distinctly connected to our brain physiology and
functioning.
Biological Science
PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY
Psychoneuroimmunology draws its assumptions from how
our immune systems function, similar to the shaping of self.
Our body is made up of nucleotides, and its composition
make up our DNA. In the context of our immune system,
our human bodies “reject” foreign matter that can harm
our bodies and build up on the existing molecules, leading
to a healthy bodily system. However, there times when
foreign matter that enters our system can be helpful for our
bodily maintenance and thus, becomes a permanent fixture
within the body. In the context of the self, individuals
capitalize on their innate attributes and are likely to reject
environmental factors seen to be harmful to the body and
their well-being. In discovering our self, we are likely to
imbibe external experiences that are seen to be helpful to
us and reject those that we do not like or those we do not
derive pleasure from.
• Heredity – the transmission of traits from parents
to offspring.

• Chromosomes – a strand like structure found in

the nuclei of the cell. (compose of DNA)
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – a ladder like
structure assembled from smaller molecules
(contains thousand of genes).

• Genes – segment of DNA that serve as a basic unit

of heredity.

Reproduction
Reproductive cells
• Sperm cells /spermatozoa • Egg cells / ova (ovum)
(spermatozoon)
Reproductive Organs
• Ovaries (gonads) • Testicles /testes (gonads)
egg cell sperm cell
• 23 chromosomes • 23 chromosomes

46 chromosomes
• Ovulation – the release of an egg cell from a females ovary.
 Types of Gene
Dominant gene - is one whose characteristic will be
dominant when paired with another
gene.

Recessive gene - is one whose characteristics will

not be produced when paired with
dominant gene.

Homozygous - combination (pair) of both

dominant genes or both recessive
genes.

Heterozygous - a pair of dominant and recessive

genes.
 Father Mother

B b B b

heterozygous

homozygous
- Brown eyes B (dominant ) Represents that 75
percent of the offspring
- Blue eyes b (recessive ) will have brown eyes
 Gonosomes - sex chromosomes (23rd chromosome)

Egg cell Sperm cell

meiosis

x x x
x yx y
x x x x x y
x x x x y x x
x y x y
x x x girl
xx

Girl -XX xy

Boy - Xy boy
Social Sciences
Whereas physical science has devoted much
of its time to understanding the physical
nature of people, social science is concerned
with human functioning in the context of
society and social institutions. Psychology,
sociology, anthropology, politics, and
economics are some of the social sciences
that have contributed much to the study of
the Self.
Social Sciences
Psychology is one of the most popular social
sciences, defined as “the study of human behavior”. A
number of theoretical perspectives have been introduced
within this field of interest to explain the “self”.
Psychology has contributed a lot in the study of the self as
a theoretical construct. In fact, the development of the so
called Science of Self is significantly rooted from various
psychological theories and principles. In many
psychological theories (e.g., social and personality
psychology), the term self has been used as a predicate of
several psychological constructs (e.g., self-awareness, self-
construal, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-regulation, etc.).
Such usages of the term indicate not only an acceptance
of its existence but also signify its importance in
characterizing human psychological and personal
attributes.
Sigmund Freud:
3 Levels of Consciousness/Mental Life
1. conscious- deals with the awareness of
▪ present perception
▪ Feelings
▪ Memories
▪ Fantasies at particular moment

▪ The conscious contains information, thought and ideas that we are aware
of. According to Freud, it is only a small portion of the mind. It may be
about 10% of the overall content of the mind.
▪ For instance, you are pretty much aware of what you are doing right now
or where you are going. Since it’s within the limit of your awareness, it is
anything that someone is aware of at any given point in time.
3 Levels of Consciousness /Mental Life

2. Pre-conscious/ subconscious
▪ Is related to data that can readily be brought to consciousness.

▪ The preconscious is located between the conscious and

unconscious. These are the information that are readily available
when needed.
▪ For example, Annabelle does not think of her mobile number, but
when somebody asks her of her number, she can easily recall it
because it is stored near the level of consciousness. These are
memories of the stored knowledge.
3 Levels of Consciousness /Mental Life

3. Unconscious
▪ Refers to data retained but not easily available to the
individual’s conscious awareness scrutiny.

▪ According to Freud, man may be aware of overt behavior but

remain unconscious of their motives. For instance, Alex hates
a particular person so much yet does not fully understand of
the reason for hatred.
Self according to Sigmund Freud
• It’s within the unconscious
Freud's 3 structures of the psych/mind/personality

1. The id (pleasure principle)

▪ is the impulsive (and unconscious) part of our psyche which responds
directly and immediately to the instincts.

▪ operates on the pleasure principle which is the idea that every

wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the
consequences.

▪ child state
2. The Ego (reality principle)-
▪operates according to the reality principle, working out
realistic ways of satisfying the id’s demands, often
compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid
negative consequences of society.

▪considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules

in deciding how to behave.

▪adult state
3. The superego (moral principle)

▪Function is to control the id's impulses, especially

those which society forbids, such as sex and
aggression.
▪ has the function of persuading the ego to turn to
moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones
and to strive for perfection.
• conscience - (parent state)
Social Sciences
Sociology is the study of collective
behavior of people within society and
focuses on social problems encountered
by people. It does not see the individual
on his own, but rather, how social
institutions and his social relationships
within society create an impact on his
thoughts, feelings, and behavior. It
provides tools for understanding human
experience and how society shapes the
person and vice versa.
Social Sciences
Anthropology is the “science of
human beings; especially the study of
human beings and their ancestors
through time and space and in relation
to physical character, environmental and
social relations, and culture.” In the
context of studying the self,
anthropology provides the lens of the
developmental advancements society
has made and how it has impacted
generations who existed within that
society.
Social Sciences
Political Science is concerned with
participation of individuals in establishing a
government and making political choices. It
is not about political affiliations but rather,
the factors involved in how one arrives at
his political choices and behavior. In
studying self, how an individual participates
in government, his ideologies and
advocacies, are significant contributors to
his selfhood.
Social Sciences
Economics is “concerned chiefly with
description and analysis of the production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and
services". Nature of goods, how we
manufacture them, how we share in its
consumption, our state of finances and
purchasing power, and its equitable
distribution to society shapes our self through
valuation of products and services that society
has to offer. Our economic activities have
shaped our value system, and sense of self.
Science of the Self Things to Ponder About
In this unit, we have outlined the impact of the sciences to our
self- discovery and self-understanding.

➢ Do our physical bodies define who we are?

➢ Do our societal identities change?
➢ To what extent does society shape our self and
identity?
Module 1. Introduction to Understanding the Self
Unit 2-b.What Science Says About the Self
Module Assessment
Check your workbook:
• Exercise No. 1 . My DNA (Diversity, Nature-Nurture, and Anatomy (pp. 24 – 26)
• Exercise No. 2. My RNA – Relations and Nature/Nurture Analysis (pp. 27 – 28)

Assignment No. 2
Metacognitive Reading Report (p. 29)
Readings:
• Blaisedell, A. (2009). A Biological Definition of Self.
• Golubović, Z. (2010). An Anthropological Conceptualisation of Identity.
• Gallagher, S. (2000). Philosophical conceptions of the self: implications for
cognitive science.