1.

INTRODUCTION

Because of urban rail vehicles frequent start-up, braking process, the braking
energy is considerable. The improvement of electric traction energy efficiency for urban
rail vehicles has been the primarily objective for some countries and research institutions
in recent years. Statistics show that apart from certain percentage energy (usually 20%
~30%) being absorbed by other adjacent train, the rest braking energy is mainly
consumed by braking resistance, which leads to both massive energy waste and
temperature increment in tunnel and platform. Now, the energy-saving technology for
urban railway is mainly focused on how to carry out the braking energy recycling. A
variety of methods have been proposed as the use of inverter technology and the use of
various energy storage devices (super-capacitors, fly-wheel, hydraulic devices, etc.).
Although as surveyed above, substantial research has been done on the braking energy
recapture and reuse, there are still many important problems that need to be addressed
further.

1
 2. HISTORY OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE OVER INDIAN
RAILWAYS

Electric Traction on Indian Railways started with 1500V DC traction and

therefore initialLocomotives finding place on Indian Railway maps were only DC
Locomotive. The developmentof locos on Indian Railways thus started. Traction voltage
system started from 1500V DC,3000V DC in Howrah Division of Eastern Railway for
short period before converting into 25kVAC and finally 25kV AC. At present 1500V DC
system also is on the last leg of conversion into25kV AC system over Central Railway
thus paving way for uni-voltage system on IndianRailway.Following major factors
accounts for all the historical developments of Electric Locomotive overIndian Railways
with development of technologies and demand for speed and hauling capacity.

Loco Numbering system on Indian Railways

THE FIRST LETTER -GAUGE

W-Indian broad gauge - (The "W" Stands for Wide Gauge - 5 Feet 6 inches), Y-metre
gauge(The "Y" stands for Yard Gauge - 3 Feet or 1000mm), Z-narrow gauge(2 ft 6 in),
N-narrow gauge (2 ft)

THE SECOND LETTER -TYPE OF TRACTION

D-Diesel - C-DC electric – Built for Mumbai area operation but now CA class only
exists. Thelast to become history is WCG2, A-AC electric (can run under AC traction
only), CA-Both DCand AC specifically built to avoid change of traction at unsuitable
place for Mumbai area ofCentral and Western Railway. This class will be historical
shortly as soon as Central Railwayfully changes over to AC Traction, B-Battery electric
locomotive – Two nos available forshunting work in underground Kolkata Metro
Railway

THE THIRD LETTER -SERVICES

2
G-goods, P-passenger, M-Mixed; both goods and passenger, S-Used for shunting – there
is noelectric loco developed exclusively for the purpose of shunting, U-Electric multiple
units, Railcars
Therefore, WAG7 shall mean-
"W" means broad gauge
"A" mean AC electric traction motive power
"G" means suitable for Freight service
"7" denotes that this locomotive is chronologically the seventh electric locomotive model
usedby the railways for freight service.

History of Developments of Locomotive over Indian Railways

Development of Electric Locomotive can be precisely identified in four distinct
periods as1925-57, 1958-71, 1971-1988, 1989-current and what is in store for future

1925-1957
Year 1925 was the foundation laying period of Electric Traction on Indian
Railways. On Feb 3,Harbour branch of the erstwhile GIPR from Victoria Terminus (now
called CST) to Kurla 16 Kmwas the first electrify on 1500V DC and EMUs procured
from Cammell Laird andUerdingenwagonfabrik were used. During the same month, the
first electric loco EF/1 (laterWCG-1) "crocodile" was introduced.This was the period of
DC traction but electrified only 529 RKM. Electrification was confinedmainly to
Mumbai Sub-urban area. Traffic density of sub-urban area associated with ghatsection of
Karjat-Pune and Kasara-Igatpuri justified the need for electrification of this
section.Historical documentations related to justification of electrification of these
sectionsThereafter, electrification progressed very fast and the section upto Pune and
Igatpurienergized in 1926 and from Colaba to Borivilli in 1928 and finally completed
upto Virar in 1936.The work on Madras MG sub-urban section upto Tambaram started in
1928 and completed onMay 11, 1931 with 1500V DC traction and introduction of MG
EMU services. The section waslater on converted into 25kV AC system in the year
1965.Electrification of Sheoraphulli--Tarakeshwar branch 142 km of Eastern Railway on
3000V DCcompleted in Nov. 1957. The operation was limited to EMU operation only

3
and 3000V DC locosprocured for operation on this line was suitably converted to operate
on 1500V DC system inMumbai Sub-urban area. This section later on converted into
25kV AC in the year 1967.With AC traction coming up beyond Igatpuri, it became
necessary to develop dual voltagelocomotive with different versions following the
development of AC locos.

1956-1971
On the recommendations of SNCF, 25kV AC traction was decided as standard
voltage forundertaking electrification and also chosen as technical consultant.An
organization called the Main Line Electrification Project -- which later became the
RailwayElectrification Project and still later the Central Organization for Railway came
into existence toundertake Railway Electrification works over Indian Raiwlays."Mixed
Traffic" locomotives were ordered from European 50 cycle Group (a consortium of
8manufacturers of electrical loco equipment in France,Germany, Belgium and
Switzerland associated with 4 mechanical locomotive builders).

1972-1990
There were many problems associated with the working of BO-BO design bogie
with fullysuspended motor of WAG1&4 class of locomotive. This has called upon Indian
RailwayEngineers to develop suitably designed locomotive to meet the specific
requirement of heavyhaul and gradient. CO-CO bogie design with axle hung and nose-
suspended motor of WDM2loco was well established by that time and it was decided to
suitably adopt the design and gavebirth to WAM4 and WAG5 class of locomotive.
WAG1&4 class of locomotive later on transferredfrom SER to SC and WR in the year
1980 for operation in plain territory.

1990-
GTO and IGBT devices were developed successfully to control the voltage and
frequency of input supply thus opening a gate-way for bringing three phase induction
motor to work as Traction motor. It was only the power handling capability and
switching frequency

4
 3. AN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE

There are three types of locomotive operating over Indian Railways with different
power conversion configuration.
1. Single phase transformer with Tap changer of 32 notches at primary side and two
secondary winding to feed two circuits of three traction motors connected in parallel,
using bridge rectifier to convert AC into DC. (WAM4, WAG5, WAG7)
2. Single Phase transformer with two secondary feeding to Thyristor base controlled
rectifier converting AC` into controllable DC (WAG6A, B&C)
3. Single phase transformer with step down output fed to line side and load side converter
using three phase traction motor. Converter-Inverter sets converts AC into DC link
Voltage and used for traction purpose either directly and after converting into three
phases.
The operation of electric locomotive involves the current collection by a
pantograph continuously touching the overhead wire, running over the bus-bar on the
locomotive roof to surge arrester and Vacuum circuit breaker. Output of vacuum circuit
breaker is connected to the transformer through condenser bushing or cable head
termination. The output of the transformer is fed to power converter and controller as
shown in the diagram for different class of locomotive. The output of the power converter
and controller which is either controlled DC or three phase AC with variable voltage and
variable frequency is fed to the suitable traction motor. Traction Motor drives the wheel
through reduction gears. The locomotive is supported on the wheel through bogie/bolster
and suspension system. The Locomotive is a collection of technologies prevailing and
developed exclusively for the purpose or modified to the existing one. There is hardly
any field of engineering not finding its role in the design and development of Electric
Locomotive. Therefore, knowledge of Electric Locomotive provides an opportunity to
know the adaptability and application of different technologies for a purpose. How a
locomotive works and what is there in store for you is made available in subsequent
chapters.

5
 4. HOW A LOCOMOTIVE WORKS A TRAIN?

When we were child, looking at the mammoth size of steam engine powering the
train was a wonderful sight. The wheel in front of the loco pilot was assumed to be
driving wheel similar to road vehicle. Self steering rail-wheel profile is the reason for
negotiating on curve and the wheel in frontof the loco pilot is controlling the input of
steam was understood much later. Rail Technologies has remained confined to very few
attached to Railways profession either directly or indirectly. Whereas road technologies
have opened up large opportunities of door to door transportation withaccessibility to
remote corners of the land and very high level of job creation at manufacturing, sale,
maintenance, distribution network of fuel etc. It is the automobile transport which has led
the manufacturing innovations, setting new standards in production technology,
development ofmaterial for maintenance free concepts etc. Rail transport took a back seat
with air and road transport advancing very fast. In road as well as air, the fossil fuel is
directly converted into mechanical energy to drive the vehicle except for Battery driven
road vehicle. Why there is a so much ofresearch to develop use of electric power through
plug or solar energy charging battery to drive road vehicle? While searching an answer to
this basic question, plannersand policy makers realizing the environment and energy
benefits of Rail transport, it has nowstarted moving toward driving seat. There are three
types of locomotive developed namelySteam, Diesel and Electric.

Steam Locomotive
Steam Locomotive has always been a subject of curiosity among generation from
the timeintroduced over Indian Railways. This was also for the reason that this was the
only mode ofmechanical transport as road transport was not invented at that time.
Railways have mainlybeen identified by its rhythm sound most popularly called chuk-
chuk gaadi. Source of motivepower in a steam locomotive is coal, fuel energy of which is
used to generate steam at highpressure. The high pressure steam works a piston driving
the wheel through crank connection.With advancement of technologies led to
introduction of electric and diesel locomotive replacingsteam locomotive which has now
gone into oblivion. Steam locomotive now only runs historicalor tourist trains to show

6
case the history of Railways. With the advent of electricity and electricalmotor, and many
advantages associated with electric and diesel traction, it replaced the steamtraction. For
Electric traction, basic fuel is still coal only, but efficient use in large power
houses,electricity driving traction motor with better maneuverability of speed and traction
control favoredthe change.

How an electric Locomotive functions

The functioning of electric locomotive involves current collection by a
pantograph continuouslytouching the over head wire, running over the bus-bar of the
locomotive roof to surge arresterand Vacuum circuit breaker (earlier Air Blast Circuit
Breaker popularly called DJ). Output ofvacuüm circuit breaker is connected to
transformer through cable head termination (formerlycondenser bushing). Output of
Transformer is processed to feed traction motor. Development ofprocessing technology
over the last 80 years has led to different class of locomotive of whichthree class of
locomotive is in operation over Indian Railways. There are three types oflocomotive
operating over Indian Railways with different power conversion configuration.Single
phase transformer with Tap changer of 32 notches at primary side and twosecondary
winding to feed two circuits of three traction motor connected in parallel,using bridge
rectified to convert AC into DC. and smoothing reactor. This configurationis in WAM4,
WAG5, WAG7, WAP1, WAP4 class of locomotive.

Fig. Power Circuit of Electric Locomotive with Tap Charger

7
 Fig. Pantograph and other Roof Equipment

Fig. DC Series Traction Motor of Hitachi Design for WAG7 Locomotive.

Single Phase transformer with two secondary feeding to Thyristor base controlled
rectifier converting AC` into controllable DC (WAG6A,B&C). The circuit configuration
is same as above except diode bridge rectified is replaced by thyristor base controlled
bridge rectifier.

8
 The transformer is step down transformer without having winding for different
steps and controlled output is obtained by controlling through firing angle of thyristor.
Indian Railways did not pursue this technology because of development of GTO with
three phase traction motor. Presently Indian Railways is having only 18 locomotives and
working in a dedicated Vishakapatnam-Kirandul route of VSKP division of ECOR.
Single phase transformer with step down output fed to line and load side converter using
three phase traction motor. Converter Inverter set converts AC into DC link and then
three phases AC.

Fig. Converter Inverter set converts AC into DC link and then three phases AC.

Step by step action taken by Loco pilot to energize the locomotive and work a train
Step by step action for car driver is take ignition, press the clutch, take first gear
and start the car with step by step change of gear depending on the speed.
For locomotive during start
1. Start baby compressor working on Battery Voltage and build up pressure to 6 Kg.
2. Raise the pantograph and close the Vac. circuit breaker as soon the pantograph touches
the over head wire.

9
3. With this three phase power supply will not will be available to work the auxiliary
machines. Start the main compressor to built pressure in the locomotive and brake and
feed pipe of the train.
4. Check the continuity of pressure with the guard of the train.
5. Exchange the signal with the guard about the readiness of the train.
6. Take traction notch slowly keeping a watch on the traction motor current which should
be in green/yellow zone. The train starts rolling. If it does not, means brake not released.

During working a train

1. Keep a constant and vigilant watch on the section ahead
2. Keep whistling to warn while passing a Railway Station, Level X-ing gate and on
seeing any live obstruction on the route
3. Keep watching pressure, speed, notch position, traction motor current etc.
4. Watch the train in the rear while negotiating curve for any abnormality
5. Exchange hand signal with the guard at start of train from any stoppage, with station
staff and train crew passing on the adjacent line
6. Repeat signal aspect after it is shouted by Assistant Loco Pilot
7. Assistant Loco Pilot to record the time of passing a station and any other observation
during run
8. Assistant Loco Pilot to take a round inside the locomotive for any unusual particularly
after passing a neutral section
9. Making best use of braking system with first priority of regenerative, rheostatic and
then mechanical.
Modern Locomotives are equipped with automatic control features making the train
working\ simple helping the loco pilot in many ways. The system of working is set based
on the primitive design of locomotive. The old working system has continued to be
copied on the model design as well in the name of safety. Job of Loco pilot can be
simplified a lot taking advantage of features of modern technology.

10
 5. CONVECTIONAL BRAKING SYSTEM

Brake is an integral part of any transport. For slowing or stopping the motion of a
vehicle, or to restrain it from starting to move again, some kind of braking is required. In
the conventional braking process, the kinetic energy of the moving part is usually
converted into heat by friction and getting lost. Thus braking not only results into loss of
energy and brake wear, as seen in Figure (1); it also needs additional energy for brake
application, e.g., disc or drum brakes on automobiles, see Figure (2).

Fig. Brake wears 8k to 100k miles

Fig. Working of disc and drum brakes

11
 Alternatively, in regenerative braking, most of the kinetic energy (E = ½mv2) is
recovered and stored in a flywheel, a capacitor, a battery for later use or fed back to the
grid instantaneously. As mass or velocity increases (high speed passenger trains or heavy
haul freight trains), a significant amount of energy gets lost where regenerative braking is
not used. Dynamic brakes dissipate the electric energy regenerated as heat through a bank
of resistors thus savingon brake wear but they are not regenerative in true sense.

12
 6. REGENERATIVE BRAKE

A regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle or

object down by converting its kinetic energy into another form, which can be either used
immediately or stored until needed. This contrasts with conventional braking systems,
where the excess kinetic energy is converted to heat by friction in the brake linings and
therefore wasted.

General
The most common form of regenerative brake involves using an electric motor as
an electric generator. In electric railways the generated electricity is fed back into the
supply system, whereas in battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is
stored chemically in a battery, electrically in a bank of capacitors, or mechanically in a
rotating flywheel. Hydraulic hybrid vehicles use hydraulic motors and store energy in
form of compressed air.

Limitations
Traditional friction-based braking is used in conjunction with mechanical
regenerative braking for the following reasons:
• The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds; therefore the friction brake is
still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Physical locking of the rotor
is also required to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills.
• The friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the regenerative
brake.
• Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels (as in a
two wheel drive car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such wheels because
they are the only wheels linked to the drive motor, so in order to provide controlled
braking under difficult conditions (such as in wet roads) friction based braking is
necessary on the other wheels.
• The amount of electrical energy capable of dissipation is limited by either the capacity
of the supply system to absorb this energy or on the state of charge of the battery or

13
capacitors. Regenerative braking can only occur if no other electrical component on the
same supply system is drawing power and only if the battery or capacitors are not fully
charged. For this reason, it is normal to also incorporate dynamic braking to absorb the
excess energy.
• Under emergency braking it is desirable that the braking force exerted be the maximum
allowed by the friction between the wheels and the surface without slipping, over the
entire speed range from the vehicle's maximum speed down to zero. The maximum force
available for acceleration is typically much less than this except in the case of extreme
high-performance vehicles. Therefore, the power required to be dissipated by the braking
system under emergency braking conditions may be many times the maximum power
which is delivered under acceleration. Traction motors sized to handle the drive power
may not be able to cope with the extra load and the battery may not be able to accept
charge at a sufficiently high rate. Friction braking is required to dissipate the surplus
energy in order to allow an acceptable emergency braking performance. For these reasons
there is typically the need to control the regenerative braking and match the friction and
regenerative braking to produce the desired total braking output. The GM EV-1 was the
first commercial car to do this. Engineers Abraham Farag and Loren Majersik were
issued two patents for this brake-by-wire technology.

Conversion to electric energy: the motor as a generator

Vehicles driven by electric motors use the motor as a generator when using
regenerative braking: it is operated as a generator during braking and its output is
supplied to an electrical load; the transfer of energy to the load provides the braking
effect. Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup some of
the energy lost during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to
power the motor whenever the car is in electric mode. Early examples of this system were
the front-wheel drive conversions of horse-drawn cabs by Louis Antoine Krieger (1868–
1951). The Krieger electric landaulet had a drive motor in each front wheel with a second
set of parallel windings (bifilar coil) for regenerative braking.In England, the Raworth
system of "regenerative control" was introduced by tramway operators in the early 1900s,
since it offered them economic and operational benefits as explained by A. Raworth of

14
Leeds in some detail.These included tramway systems at Devonport (1903),Rawtenstall,
Birmingham, Crystal Palace-Croydon (1906) and many others. Slowing down the speed
of the cars or keeping it in hand on descending gradients, the motors worked as
generators and braked the vehicles. The tram cars also had wheel brakes and track slipper
brakes which could stop the tram should the electric braking systems fail. In several cases
the tram car motors were shunt wound instead of series wound, and the systems on the
Crystal Palace line utilized series-parallel controllers. Following a serious accident at
Rawtenstall, an embargo was placed on this form of traction in 1911. Twenty years later,
the regenerative braking system was reintroduced. Regenerative braking has been in
extensive use on railways for many decades. The Baku-Tbilisi-Batumi railway
(Transcaucasus Railway or Georgian railway) started utilizing regenerative braking in the
early 1930s. This wasespecially effective on the steep and dangerous Surami Pass. In
Scandinavia the Kiruna to Narvik railway carriesiron ore from the mines in Kiruna in the
north of Sweden down to the port of Narvik in Norway to this day. The railcars are full of
thousands of tons of iron ore on the way down to Narvik, and these trains generate large
amounts ofelectricity by their regenerative braking. From Riksgränsen on the national
border to the Port of Narvik, the trainsuse only a fifth of the power they regenerate. The
regenerated energy is sufficient to power the empty trains back upto the national
border.Any excess energy from the railway is pumped into the power grid to supply
homes andbusinesses in the region, and the railway is a net generator of electricity.An
Energy Regeneration Brake was developed in 1967 for the AMC Amitron. This was a
completely batterypowered urban concept car whose batteries were recharged by
regenerative braking, thus increasing the range of theautomobile.Many modern hybrid
and electric vehicles use this technique to extend the range of the battery pack.
Examplesinclude the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, the Vectrix electric maxi-scooter, the
Tesla Roadster, the Nissan Leaf, theMahindra Reva and the Chevrolet Volt.

Electric railway vehicle operation

During braking, the traction motor connections are altered to turn them into
electrical generators. The motor fields are connected across the main traction generator
(MG) and the motor armatures are connected across the load. The MG now excites the

15
motor fields. The rolling locomotive or multiple unit wheels turn the motor armatures,
and the motors act as generators, either sending the generated current through onboard
resistors (dynamic braking) or back into the supply (regenerative braking). Compared to
electro-pneumatic friction brakes, braking with the traction motors can be regulated faster
improving the performance of wheel slide protection. For a given direction of travel,
current flow through the motor armatures during braking will be opposite to thatduring
motoring. Therefore, the motor exerts torque in a direction that is opposite from the
rolling direction.Braking effort is proportional to the product of the magnetic strength of
the field windings, multiplied by that of thearmature windings.Savings of 17% are
claimed for Virgin Trains Pendolinos. There is also less wear on friction braking
components.The Delhi Metro saved around 90,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) from
being released into the atmosphere byregenerating 112,500 megawatt hours of electricity
through the use of regenerative braking systems between 2004and 2007. It is expected
that the Delhi Metro will save over 100,000 tons of CO2 from being emitted per year
onceits phase II is complete through the use of regenerative braking.Another form of
simple, yet effective regenerative braking is used on the London Underground which is
achieved byhaving small slopes leading up and down from stations. The train is slowed
by the climb, and then leaves down aslope, so kinetic energy is converted to gravitational
potential energy in the station.Electricity generated by regenerative braking may be fed
back into the traction power supply; either offset againstother electrical demand on the
network at that instant, or stored in lineside storage systems for later use.

Comparison of dynamic and regenerative brakes

Dynamic brakes, unlike regenerative brakes, dissipate the electric energy as heat
bypassing the current through large banks of variable resistors. Vehicles that use dynamic
brakes include forklifts, diesel-electric locomotives, and streetcars. This heat can be used
to warm the vehicle interior, or dissipated externally by large radiator-like cowls to house
the resistor banks. The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with
dynamic brakes is the need to closely match the generated current with the supply
characteristics and increased maintenance cost of the lines. With DC supplies, this
requires that the voltage be closely controlled. Only with the development of power

16
electronics has this been possible with AC supplies, where the supply frequency must
also be matched (this mainly applies to locomotives where an AC supply is rectified for
DC motors).A small number of mountain railways have used 3-phase power supplies and
3-phase induction motors. This results in a near constant speed for all trains as the motors
rotate with the supply frequency both when motoring and braking.

CONVERSION TO MECHANICAL ENERGY

Kinetic energy recovery systems

Kinetic energy recovery systems (KERS) were used for the motor sport Formula
One's 2009 season, and are under development for road vehicles. KERS was abandoned
for the 2010 Formula One season, but re-introduced for the2011 season. As of the 2011
season, 9 teams are using KERS, with 3 teams having not used it so far in a race. One of
the main reasons that not all cars use KERS is because it adds an extra 25 kilograms of
weight, while not adding to the total car weight, it does incur a penalty particularly seen
in the qualifying rounds, as it raises the car's center of gravity, and reduces the amount of
ballast that is available to balance the car so that it is more predictable when turning. FIA
rules also limit the exploitation of the system. The concept of transferring the vehicle’s
kinetic energy using flywheel energy storage was postulated by physicist Richard
Feynman in the 1950s[citation needed] and is exemplified in such systems as the Zytek,
Flybrid, Torotrak and Xtrac used in F1. Differential based systems also exist such as the
Cambridge Passenger/Commercial Vehicle Kinetic Energy Recovery System (CPC-
KERS). Xtrac and Flybrid are both licensees of Torotrak's technologies, which employ a
small and sophisticated ancillarygearbox incorporating a continuously variable
transmission (CVT). The CPC-KERS is similar as it also forms part ofthe driveline
assembly. However, the whole mechanism including the flywheel sits entirely in the
vehicle’s hub(looking like a drum brake). In the CPC-KERS, a differential replaces the
CVT and transfers torque between theflywheel, drive wheel and road wheel.

17
THERMODYNAMICS

KERS Flywheel
The energy of a flywheel can be described by this general energy equation,
assuming the flywheel is the system:

Where:

• is the energy into the flywheel.

• is the energy out of the flywheel.

• is the change in energy of the flywheel

An assumption is made that during braking there is no change in the potential
energy, enthalpy of the flywheel, pressure or volume of the flywheel, so only kinetic
energy will be considered. As the car is braking, no energy is dispersed by the flywheel,
and the only energy into the flywheel is the initial kinetic energy of the car. The equation
can be simplified to:

Where:
• ‘m’ is the mass of the car.
• ‘v’ is the initial velocity of the car just before braking.
The flywheel collects a percentage of the initial kinetic energy of the car, and this
percentage can be represented by. The flywheel stores the energy as rotational kinetic
energy. Because the energy is kept as kinetic energy and not transformed into another
type of energy this process is efficient. The flywheel can only store so much energy,
however, and this is limited by its maximum amount of rotational kinetic energy. This is
determined based upon the inertia of the flywheel and its angular velocity. As the car sits
idle, little rotational kinetic energy is lost over time so the initial amount of energy in the

18
flywheel can be assumed to equal the final amount of energy distributed by the flywheel.
The amount of kinetic energy distributed by the flywheel is therefore:

Regenerative Brakes
Regenerative braking has a similar energy equation to the equation for the
mechanical flywheel. Regenerative braking is a two-step process involving the
motor/generator and the battery. The initial kinetic energy is transformed into electrical
energy by the generator and is then converted into chemical energy by the battery. This
process is less efficient than the flywheel. The efficiency of the generator can be
represented by:

Where:
• Winis the work into the generator.
•Wout is the work produced by the generator.
The only work into the generator is the initial kinetic energy of the car and the
only work produced by the generatoris the electrical energy. Rearranging this equation to
solve for the power produced by the generator gives thisequation:

Where:
• ∆t is the amount of time the car brakes.
•m is the mass of the car.

19
• v is the initial velocity of the car just before braking.
The efficiency of the battery can be described as:

Where:


The work out of the battery represents the amount of energy produced by the regenerative
brakes. This can be represented by:

20
 7. REGENERATION IN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES WITH DC
TRACTIONMOTORS

Out of all modes of transportation system, only Indian Railways (IR) has been
matching with theburgeoning growth of the economy of India by maintaining the unit
price in spite of steep rise infuel prices .To stay competitive, we have to develop creative
solutions to cut down theexpenditure on fuel . Worldwide , there is a trend to make
railroad more energy-efficient.Understanding the significance of Rail Industry in US
Economy ,US has laid down stress onenergy efficiency in transportation. As a result, the
railroads , their manufacturers and the federal government have embarked on a
cooperative effort to further improve railroad fuel efficiency, i.e. 25% by 2010 and 50%
by 2050. Some of the Fuel efficiency measures havealready taken by US Rail road since
2005 and 16% of energy efficiency has been achieved so far. Among various other
measures taken by US Railroad , energy recovery during braking isthe most significant
one.Energy regenerated/recovered during braking is used – to meet hotel load
requirement bystoring it in super capacitor/batteries , to be used by other trains in the
sections and to feedbackto the national grid and take credit for the energy delivered. A
study carried out by UIC suggeststhat all type of services, e.g. freight , passenger –
suburban , mainline, intercity has potential ofregenerating energy from 15% to 45%
depending upon type of terrain/section,speed,etc,including DC traction.Railways are the
most efficient mode of transport in any country and electric traction is the mostenergy-
efficient mode of traction. DC Electric traction on IR started in 1925 in Mumbai
suburbanarea whereas 25KV 50Hz electric traction started in early 1960s with tap
changer technology. IRhas been manufacturing tapchanger locomotives till date which
are still its workhorse .Over3000 nos. of 25 KV AC 50Hz locomotives are in service on
IR and will be serving for next twoand half decades. All freight locomotives are provided
with rheostat braking .All new passengerlocomotives are also being manufactured with
rheostat braking and there is drive to provide thistype of braking in older locomotives
also. In all these locomotives, energy during braking arenot being recovered as these all
are fitted with uncontrolled rectifier bridge to feed tractionmotors .

21
IR has acquired electric locomotives with three-phase technology in late 90s.These
locomotivesare capable of generating power during braking and draw traction power at
unity power factor. Approximately, 15% energy is being regenerated in freight
locomotives , 20% in passengerlocos and 30% in EMUs. But such locomotives form only
6% of total locomotive holding and therest of the locomotives are dissipating energy in
resistance grid during braking. Energy to thetune of INR 18.75 billion is being lost during
braking , if captured back , the same amount willsaved on energy bill.Because of
converter inverter sets with microprocessor control , locomotives with three-
phasetechnology are able to regenerate energy during braking. Now with advent in
technology ofpower electronics, control electronics and higher density energy storage
devices , it is possibleto regenerate energy during braking back to the grid or use the
regenerated energy for hotelload with high density energy storage devices.IR can adopt
microprocessor controlled IGBT based converter in place of existing tap changerand
uncontrolled rectifier in huge fleet of DC traction motor fitted locomotives to regenerate
braking energy. Such retro fitment , will not only feedback the energy recovered from
braking ,but will also have unity power factor operation , better slip slide control,
constant speed control, less maintenance of locomotive and trailing stocks, etc. Energy
regenerated can earn carbon credits under Kyoto Protocol.

Energy Recovery Opportunities:

UIC has carried out a detail study on Energy Regeneration in 25 KV 50Hz , 16
2/3 Hz and DC traction system on various types of train services. All these reports give
the potential of energy regeneration depending upon type of terrain/section, speed, etc. in
all the above traction systems, which is given below :

Train Services Energy Regeneration Opportunity

Main Lines 15%
Regional Lines 35%
Local Lines 45%
Freight Lines 20%

22
 In country like US , for making rail road more energy-efficient ,major area of
research identifiedin the report of “Rail Road and Locomotive technology Roadmap”
year 2002, prepared byCanter of Transportation Research Argonne National Laboratory ,
US Department of Energy arelisted below :

Train System: Operations Optimization, Consist Management, Aerodynamics

,Wheel/Rail Friction and Rolling ResistanceLocomotive System :Idle Reduction, Energy
Recovery and Motors & Drives

Locomotive Engines: High-efficiency Turbo, Sensors & Controls ,Fuel

Injection/Combustion , NOX Absorber ,PM Trap

Advanced Power Plants and Fuels: Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition,

Alternate Fuels and Fuel Cells.

It can be seen from above that the Energy Recovery during braking is one of the
key area offocus. With more diesel locomotives in service, if US Railroad can have an
action plan forenergy-saving to this extent, with more percentage of electric locomotives
we can save stillmore.The traction power systems is said to be receptive if a train or
locomotive can use regenerativebraking. If there are no other trains in the section that can
absorb the power and if thesubstation is not designed to back feed into the supply grid,
regenerative braking results in riseof OHE voltage rising above a predetermined limit,
whereby the train control system detects thenon-receptivity of the line. If the line is not
receptive, the regenerative braking is not going to beeffective and so the train resorts to
using friction or rheostat electric brake. Even if the line isreceptive, feeding power back
to the supply grid is not always possible because of practicalconstraints in the design of
the substation equipment, such as fault detection in the 132kVsupply system. Poor
regenerated power factor control can result in false fault detection bysupply distance
protection relays. Hence,suitable augmentation in power system is required formaking it
receptive for regenerative energy.Railways like Queensland and New Zealand have
evolved a PWM controlled rectifier which hasreplaced the existing rectifier and with

23
control electronics and to successfully regenerate thebraking power. With the use of
control electronics and suitable topology of rectifier , not onlyregeneration has been
achieved , but the complete locomotive operation is on unity powerfactor. In some of the
subways/underground rapid mass transit systems , e.g. Madrid, Cologne,Dresden,
Bochum and Beijing, SIEMENS have tried super capacitors to store energy whilebraking
and to use it while accelerating.

Exploiting Potential of Regenerative Braking on IR

Differential speeds of various types of train services leading to frequent braking
for precedencesor checks at signals ,undulating terrain of IR , ever-increasing demand of
inter- city services withfrequent stops and starts, energy regeneration potential is
reasonably high , which can besubstantiated with the energy regeneration figures of
locomotives with three-phase tractionmotors. Now, we have to explore the develop the
technology for capturing the braking energy oflocomotives with DC traction
motors.Nevertheless, much of the potential is not exploited due to the following reasons:
Except three-phase locomotives/EMUs, all other locomotives/EMU are not equippedwith
regenerative braking.Even in three-phase locomotives, the choice of the brake is up to the
driver.The future potential may be exploited by removing some of the present obstacles.
This includes:
Retro-fitment of the existing electric rolling stock of DC traction motor and tap
changertechnology with suitable power converter along with control electronics to
recoverbraking energy through regeneration in place of existing reheostatic
braking.Brake blending features i.e. favorable operational concepts, so that
maximumpermitted use of regeneration brakes can be ensured. Typically brakes are
blended, i.e.when the driver brakes, first the regenerative brakes are applied; if more
power isneeded (especially in unforeseen situations) additional brakes are
applied.Migration towards EMUs or the concept of train sets. Generally, EMUs have a
betterregenerative braking performance than loco-hauled trains, since more axles
arepowered. The higher the motor power and the more axles are powered, the more
energymay be recovered.Training programs and incentives for Loco PilotsIn the case of
heavy freight trains only a small fraction of the kinetic energy can be recovered,since

24
tractive force is supplied only by the locomotive and (mechanical) braking force
isdistributed along the entire train. The situation is somewhat improved in double
traction, i.e. witha train hauled by two locomotives.IR has provided energy meters which
record energy consumed during the journey , regeneratedback to the grid ,energy
dissipated in resistance grid during braking and coasting time as it isalways told that to
conserve energy , first of all start measuring it. It can be concluded that there is very high
potential of energy saving on IR to the tune of 25%can be achieved for main line services
and 30% on sub-urban services.

Existing Power Circuit

Schematic Diagram of power system layout from transformer to traction motor is
given in Fig1.Control of DC traction motors are through on load tap changer .Power after
rectification is fedto traction motors. Rectifier used here uncontrolled and it is
unidirectional ,i.e. it can only rectifypower from AC to DC during traction and so no
regeneration during braking is possible. Duringreheostatic braking, field coils of all six
traction motors are connected in series whereas acrosseach armature one braking
resistance gets into the service. Kinetic energy of the train getsdissipated into resistance
grids as heat energy which is in turn cooled by forced/natural air. Ifthere is not enough
electrical braking power, train is controlled with the help of pneumaticbraking where heat
is generated at wheels. In both the cases, the kinetic energy of the train istotally wasted.

25
 Fig. Power Circuit Of Electric Traction With DC Traction Motors

Topology of Retrofits Converters for DC Traction Motors:

A study on Energy Efficiency Improvements to Electric Locomotives using PWM
RectifierTechnology by F Finders and W Oghanna of Central Queensland University
Australia. Thisstudy has suggested two topologies for Class 3100/3200 and Class
3500/3600 locomotives onQueensland Railways. These locomotives are having
propulsion system with DC traction Motorssupplied by Hitachi and ASEA, respectively.
Queensland Railways, after detail analysis of PWMControlled Rectifier Technology, has
already entered into a contract with a leading locomotivemanufacturer to retrofit their 60
nos. of Class 3100/3200 locomotives with AC PropulsionSystem in 2007 after initial
successful prototype retro fitment of three number of Class3100/3200 in March
2006.This project comprises of supply the complete electrical equipmentcomprising the
drive units, converters, transformers, cooling systems, and driver's cab electronics
together with the related controls. Upgrading will increase the power rating, tractiveeffort
and also the availability and reliability of these locomotives, which are to be used
fortransporting coal. It will also extend the service life of these units by 20 more

26
years.High power regenerative PWM DC Motor drives have been developed. It is
expected that the power converter system would be a novel combination of existing
topologies utilizing state- of the art microprocessor and digital signal processing control
system technology. Many topologiesfor converter-chopper can be possible, however, now
there are two converter configurationsunder consideration and these are – a) the voltage
sourced PWM rectifier cascaded with a two quadrant buck converter chopper and b) the
current sourced PWM rectifier.

Fig. Voltage Source & Buck Converter Fig. Current source PWM
rectifier

The voltage sourced rectifier and buck converter :

The proposed topology is shown in Fig.2 The converter section consisting of L, C
and IGBTbridge is similar to what is found in many of the modern AC motor traction
drive system withboost converter , which maintains DC output voltage always above the
peak source voltage. Inpractice, it would be normally be set at least 30% higher. After
DC link, controlled DC supply isfed to the set of three traction motors during traction
mode .During braking , with suitablearrangement of configuration contactors , field coils
of three traction motors a bogie get in seriesand will separate supply from transformer
winding and all TMs regenerates energy through thechopper and inverter back to the
OHE with the help of suitable control electronics.The possibility exists to divide a single
lower powered chopper to each of the traction motor in amulti-motor configuration. This
would give scope for improved wheel –slip control performance.

27
Current source PWM rectifier configuration
The current source PWM rectifier configuration ( Fig.3) is derived from the basic
buck converterand so capable of voltage reduction. This makes it suitable as a DC Motor
drive. Essentially, itis the ‘Dual” of the voltage sourced converter. This means that series
inductor becomes shuntcapacitors and shunt capacitors becomes series inductors. Voltage
sources become currentsources and vice-versa.The switching configuration is based on
the requirement of voltage amplitude and waveform.The current sourced converter
therefore has a shunt capacitor at its input and a series inductorin its output. For the
voltage sourced converter the current is controlled by the difference involtages across a
series inductance. For the current sourced converter the input voltage is controlled by the
difference in currents flowing through a shunt capacitor. This then requireshe supply to
be a current source. However the current source may be replaced by a voltagesource in
series with an inductance. A suitable control system controls the input current
bymanipulation of the capacitor voltage which in turn is manipulated by the converter
PWMswitching. This configuration makes the system behave much the same as if the
input was acurrent source. The current sourced converter is capable of reverse power
flow. The buckderived current source converter is capable of controlling the motor
armature current andtherefore the tractive effort through its required range. However to
get braking effort it isrequired to reverse the armature voltage. This may he achieved by
reversal of the field current.The armature current remains in the same direction.

Retro fitment on Existing Locomotives

Topologies explained above are just illustrative as all the leading manufacturers
of electriclocomotives are having their state of the art converter solutions along with
control electronics.Their assistance can be sought to make a tailor made solution for these
locomotives. A suitableconverter along with its control system can be provided across
each secondary winding of the transformer, depending upon the fact ,if we want bogie
control or individual motor control. Acentral electronics will take the command from
master controller from loco pilot, i.e. for tractionor braking and according converter will
assume the role of a controlled rectifier and inverter.Excitation of field windings will be

28
taken care of separately during braking.Such arrangement will cut a number of
maintenance intensive equipment: such as tap changer, SMGR, reversers, CTFs, MVRF
and DBR units ,etc. The work can be taken up during MTR oflocomotives which can
enhance not only the working life of the locomotive, but will make thelocomotive more
energy efficient with a payback period of only 5-6 years.

29
 8. DESIGN OF THE SUPER-CAPACITOR BRAKING ENERGY
RECOVERY SYSTEM

As show in fig., based on the existing AC motor tractionsystem, a set of super-

capacitor array is added in. the super capacitorunit parallel to the conventional braking
resistor,two power switches is used to realize the switch between thesuper-capacitor and
the braking resistor.When beginning to braking, the train stops the powersupply from the
overhead line. The motors work asgenerators, converting the kinetic energy to electrical
energy,resulting in brake electromagnetic torque, slowing the trainand energy feedback to
the overhead line system at the sametime. The overhead line voltage will be too high if
there is noother vehicle between two traction substations. Inconventional traction control
system, resistance braking isnecessary and braking energy is consumed at the
brakingresistances by means of heat, the regenerative braking willnot be achieved. In the
ultra capacitor braking energyrecovery system, the braking energy is saved in the
ultracapacitor by a power switch, the on/off of power switch iscontrol by Traction
Control Unit (TCU), as shown in Fig.When the capacity of stored energy components is
less thanthe rated capacity, the energy storage components will notstop being charged
through the charging circuit until theyreach the rated capacity and then the TCU switch
the brakingsystem to the braking resistance system.

30
 Fig. The principle of super-capacitor braking energy recovery system

The function ofAuxiliary Control Unit (ACU) is to detect the capacity ofthe
super-capacitor and determine whether the power isenough to support the AC consumers
and DC consumers(air-conditioning and lighting etc). If the capacity of thesuper-
capacitor reached the threshold value, the supercapacitorwill supply the power consumed
to the consumersthrough a DC/DC converter and a DC/AC converter, asshown in fig.1,
otherwise the auxiliary electrical powersupply will be in work.In order to verify the
effectiveness of the suggesteddesign, a set of experimental platform was set-up. Since
theimpossibility to reproduce into laboratory the real movingmass and the power of real
rail vehicle, theelectromechanical drive has been scaled in the power(3:19).The test
platform including a 30kw AC induction motor,transducer, speed and torque sensor, three
level fly wheel,power test instrument, power analysis instrument, supercapacitor,super-

31
capacitor braking control unit, AC and DCconsumers and various DC/DC and DC/AC, as
show in fig.During the braking the super-capacitor was chargingthrough the special
DC/DC, when the voltage of supercapacitoris higher than the set-point, the AC and
DCconsumers (2kw lighting) will be supplied by the supercapacitor,otherwise the AC
and DC auxiliary power willsupply the power. Fig. is the waveforms of speed, torque,
DC-line voltage and braking current which were acquiredfrom the test platform

Fig. experimental platform of urban railway transportation

32
Fig. the waveforms of speed, torque, DC-line voltage and braking current

33
 9. MATHEMATICAL MODEL

The whole traction system for urban railway transportation contained these key
components (as show in fig.1): power supply unit, traction motor, driven control unit,
super-capacitor unit etc..

A. Power supply model

The traction power supply system in general supplied by the city power grid to track
traffic through multi-level substation and rectifier devices, converts high-voltage AC to
1500V DC, which is used to feed the inverter to drive AC traction motor.

B. Traction Motor model

AC induction motor is a multivariable, nonlinear, interdependent system. The stator has
three windings and the rotor can be equivalent to three windings too. The motor can be
described with the equations of voltage, the equations of torque and equations of
movement.

Equation of voltage:

(1)
Where,

—— transient phase voltage

transient phase current

winding resistance

—— full magnetic flux

p ——differential operator

Equation of torque:

34
 (2)

Equation of movement:

(3)

Where, Te is the electromagnetic torque, TL is the load torque, J is moment of inertia, D

is damp coefficient, K is the torsion elasticity coefficient, ωθ is the rotor angular speed,
npis number of pair of poles, as for constant load, there is D=K=0.
The model describe above is the physical model of the ac induction motor which
represents the relationship between the structure and parameters. Since the nonlinear and
strong coupling, it is quite difficult to solve these nonlinear equations, need the linear
coordinate transform to decouple the angle position relationship between stator and rotor.

C. Driven control model

Vector control is design the control law for the simplified model which is obtained by
linear coordinate transform, then by the reverse transform, the real control variable
(current and voltage) were got. According to the public oriented coordinate, vector
control is divided into: rotor flux oriented, stator flux oriented and gas flux orient, in this
paper, the rotor flux oriented vector control is selected. If using the stator currents
components isd and isq to express the orientation flux and the equation of the stator
voltage, the voltage equation based on the rotor flux orientation coordinate system can be
expressed:

35
 (4)

Where, the leakage flux coefficient is , timeconstant of stator is ,

time constant of rotor is , ω is the electrical angular speed of oriented flux, ωr is

the rotor electrical angular speed , ωs is slipangular frequency.Rotor flux and torque
components of stator current canbe expressed as:

(5)

(6)

Equation of torque:

(7)

Equations of movement:

(8)

36
 (9)

D. Energy Relationship Model

If the n is the speed of motor( r /min) ，J and GD is themoment of inertia of the vehicles
which were converted intothe motor( kg·m2 ) ， then the kinetic energy of the motor
andthe vehicles is:

(10)

During the braking, speed decrease from n1 to n2 andreleased the kinetic energy：

(11)

If supposed that all the kinetic energy of the mechanicalsystem were convert into
regenerative energy of the DC sideof the inverter, then:

(12)

For the urban railway vehicles, if the maximal DC-line voltage marked as Umax,, and the
normal voltage marked as Unom, the braking energy should be absorbed by braking unit
expressed as：

37
 (13)

Where, Ws is the braking energy saved by supercapacitor, WB is the energy need to be

absorbed by braking unit, CDC-line is the filter capacitor of the DC-line, Csup-C is the
capacity of the super-capacitor.

E. Super-capacitor model
The selection of super-capacitor is decided by the charging and discharging time, braking
period and output power. The super-capacitor unit is made of many cells and these cells
are assembled by series and parallel connection. Let me supposed that a branch were
composed of Nseries cells connected in series, and Nparallel branches connected in
parallel to form a set of super-capacitor unit. The capacity of the super-capacitor unit
described as:

(14)
Equivalent resistance of the super-capacitor unit：

(15)

38
Where, Ccell is capacity of the cell, Rcell is resistance of the cell, Csup-C is capacity of
the super-capacitor unit, Rsup-C is resistance of the super-capacitor unit. According to
the characteristic of the super-capacitor, the energy saved can be expressed as:

(16)

Where, U1 is the final charging voltage, U2 is the final discharging voltage, α is

discharging depth. According to the braking energy which needed to be absorbed by
braking unit, the capacity of super-capacitor can be ascertain, and the number and
connection mode of cells also can be determined.

39
 10.ANALYSIS

There is always scope for improvement especially in terms of technology. The

analysis was done based on the different types of storage system currently in use. It is
also an overview of possible alternatives to the commonly used storage devices. It also
highlights the drawback of a few KERS. Instability in voltage can lead to quick wear a
nd tear of the energy storage device. Figure 2 shows that comparison with other storage
systems, flywheels offer maximum steady voltage and power level, which is independent
of load, temperature and state of charge. Second being Lithium ion (Li-ion) battery
followed by Nickle metal hydride NiMH nd Lead-acid batteries. Super capacitors/ ultra-
capacitors being the lowest with 30% stability. Reason being that super capacitors have
self discharge properties. Recent research suggests that this issue might be surmounted
[ref.SC a brief overview]. The charge and discharge of electrons cause temperatures to
vary in storage devices. There are limitations to the temperature range that these devices
can withstand. Figure 3 shows the extensive operating temperature range of these storage
technologies. Flywheels again have the biggest temperature withstand range going from
-40°C to 150°C as compared to the Lead-Acid batteries which have the least range( 15°C
to 50°C). Super-capacitors are the second best at withstanding a large temperature range
with a minimum(similar to that of a flywheel) of -40°C and maximum of 70°C could
replace the flywheel.

40
 Fig. Voltage stability of different KERS

Fig.Temperature of different KERS

Efficiency in storage technologies can be defined as the amount of energy stored

by the system to the amount ofenergy given out or utilized for other use. Figure 4 shows
that super-capacitors have maximum efficiency withhydraulic storage devices not being
too far from it which is followed b the presently in use mechanical KERS (i.e.flywheel).
Batteries have the least efficiency because their discharge rate is faster as compared to the
rate at which they. Even though super-capacitors have high efficiency, they cannot be
used in KERS yet because at constant speed, super-capacitors cannot capture the kinetic

41
energy lost while braking. Fuel consumption is the main aspect targeted by hybrid cars.
This is to conserve and protect the non-renewable and natural resources. It is seen (from
figure 5) that 40% of fuel consumption reduction takes place if super-capacitors are
prioritized as storage device. Second being flywheel with 27% followed by hydraulic
energy system and batteries with 18% and 15% fuel consumption reduction respectively.
Batteries contribute least because they have short life and less conversion capacity as
compared to other storage devices since their maximum and minimum temperature range
is very small.

Fig. Efficiency of different KERS

42
 Fig. Comparison of fuel consumption of different KERS

Fig. Cost comparison of different KERS

Cost is the main drawback of every Hybrid vehicle.Causes of high cost are the materials
used in making thesevehicles and their storage technologies. Figure 6 shows thatflywheel
43
system is the cheapest after batteries with 15% and6%. However, flywheels are currently
use because of theefficiency they give in this low cost. Batteries cannot storeenough
energy and hence charge and discharge quickly. Hydraulic systems are the most
expensive of them all Followed by super-capacitorswith 47% and 32% respectively.

11.CONCLUSION

The presentation presents a design of braking energy recovery system which

based on super-capacitors, the energy available from the regenerative braking of the
motor is stored into super-capacitor sets placed on board and reused for the lighting and
air conditioning. To recover energy during braking , worldwide Railways are in the
process of upgrading their existing fleet of locomotive with DC traction motors with AC
propulsion system along with suitable control system .Already , work is progress in
Queensland Railway and New Zealand Railways. To capture the huge potential of
braking energy on IR, suitable action plan is required to be made to retrofit existing fleet
of over 3000 locomotives with PWM converter. As per UIC report, normally the pay
back period for such project is 5 to 6 years. Since leading locomotive manufacturers are
getting into this business , their ability can be sought for IR , also. This concept can be
extended to huge fleet of AC EMU/MEMU where potential of energy regeneration is
much higher.

44
 12. REFERENCES

[1] Model and Simulation of a Super-capacitor Braking Energy Recovery System

for Urban Railway Vehicles CHEN Xiao-li, Yang Jian, Fang Yu College of Urban
Railway Transportation, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai, 201620,
China, 2010 WASE International Conference on Information Engineering
[2] Oettich. S, Albrecht. T, Scholz. S, Improvements of energy efficiency of urban rapid
rail systems; Advances in Transport, 2004(16): 573~582
[3] Bocharnikov, Y. V.; Tobias, A. M.; Roberts, C.; Hillmansen, S.; Goodman, C. J..
Optimal driving strategy for traction energy saving on DC suburban railways, 2007 IET
Electric Power Applications, 2007, 1(5):675-682;
[4] Steiner M, Scholten J, Energy storage on board of DC railway vehicles, Proceedings
of the 35th Annual IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference on the Power
Electronics and Applications,2004: 666~671
[5] Steiner M, Scholten J, Energy storage on board of railway vehicles, EPE2005,
Dresden,ISBN:90-75815-08-5 :1~10
[6] Chibulka J., “Kinetic Energy Recovery system by means of Flywheel Energy storage
device,” Advanced Engineering, vol. 3, issue 1, pp. 27-38, 2009.
[7] Chicurel R., Lara P., “Control of a Hybrid Propulsion System,” Instrumentation and
Development, vol.3, issue 6, pp. 3-7, 2009.
[8] A Book on “Modern Electric Traction” By H. Pratap.

45