NAME MUSEKIWA SAMUEL

STUDENT NUMBER G0180022T

EMAIL [email protected]

COURSE INTRODUCTION TO MINING AND

METAULLUGRY
COURSE CODE EMI /EMR 1205

LECTURER DR J TSHUMA

1
1a) surface mining

It is the type of mining whereby the operation exclusively personnel working on the surface without
provision of underground operation. Surface mining is divided into two methods that is mechanical and
aqueous surface mining. Mechanical surface mining includes terrace mining, open pit mining, dimension
stone quarry and high wall mining. Aqueous surface mining is when we use solutions to remove minerals
it includes placer and solution mining.

1b) Base metals

Base metals are any nonferrous (they contain no iron) metals that are neither precious metals nor noble
metals. The most common base metals are copper, lead, nickel, tin, aluminum, and zinc. Base metals are
more common and more readily extracted than precious metals, which include gold, silver, platinum etc.

1c) calcination

Calcination refers to the industrial process of significantly increasing the temperature of a solid metal to
facilitate the removal of volatile substances that present as impurities to the metal. This process is
known to improve the Chroma, tectorial strength, pigmentary texture, weather stability, light fast-ness
and thermal stability of pigment whereas it has adverse effect on the dispensability of pigment.
Calcination can be defined as a pyrometallurgical process, during which chemically bound water, e.g.
hydrate and crystal water, is removed from the processed materials. Disintegration of some hydrates,
carbonates, halides, sulphates and other compounds occurs as well.

1d) leachate

Leachate is the liquid that drains or 'leaches' from a landfill. It varies widely in composition regarding the
age of the landfill and the type of waste that it contains. It usually contains both dissolved and
suspended material.

2) Methods used in the purification

Metals are impure when they are extracted from their ores hence they are purified to form pure metal
minerals. Some of the processes used are shown on the table below

2
Methods used explanation
electrolysis Electrolysis is a process in which electrical energy, from a direct current (dc)
supply, breaks down electrolytes. Electrolysis uses currents to give the energy
needed to help a chemical reaction occur to break apart chemical bonds
between metals and impurities. The free moving ions in electrolytes are
attracted to the oppositely charged electrodes which connect to the dc
supply.
Electrodes and ions
1. The negatively charged electrode in electrolysis is called the cathode.
Positively charged ions move towards the cathode.

2. The positively charged electrode in electrolysis is called the anode.

Negatively charged ions move towards the anode.

3
 This method is also used for purifying aluminum. Aluminum oxide is melted
and a current is passed through it. The electric current separates the
aluminum from the oxygen. A cathode adds electrons on the aluminum,
making pure aluminum, and an anode collects the extra electrons on the
oxygen. Other metals can be also purified with this method to remove
impurities
Oxidation This method is usually employed in the purification of iron, Molten iron from
the bottom of the blast furnace is impure (cast iron), low quality and very
brittle hence passed on to the oxygen lance process for purification. Iron from
the blast furnace contain impurities such as sulphar, oxygen, carbon,
phosphorus and silicon. The oxygen is blown on to the mixture and reacts
with the remaining impurities to form various oxides such as carbon
monoxide. The carbon monoxide can be cleaned and used as a fuel gas.
Quicklime (calcium oxide) is added to the furnace and reacts with elements
phosphorus and silicon to form acidic oxides of calcium silicate or calcium
phosphate which form a slag on top of the iron and removed carbon
monoxide
Distillation Method This method is useful for purification of those volatile metals which have low
boiling points such as zinc and mercury. In this method, the impure metal is
heated to its boiling point in a vessel. The vapors of metal thus formed are
4
 collected and cooled in a separate vessel to get pure metal. The impurities
being non-volatile remain behind.
Liquation Method By this method those metals can be purified which have low melting point. In
this method the block of Impure metal is placed on the top side of sloping
floor of a furnace and heated gently. Due to high temperature the fusible
metal melts and flows down to the bottom of sloping floor while the non-
fusible impurities remain behind on the floor. Finally the pure metal is
collected from the bottom of sloping floor.
Zone refining This method is employed for preparing highly pure metal (such as silicon,
tellurium, germanium), which are used as semiconductors. It is based on the
principle that melting point of a substance is lowered by the presence of
impurities. The process consists in casting the impure metal in the form of a
bar. A circular heater fitted around this bar is slowly moved longitudinally
from one end to the other. At the heated zone, the bar melts, and as the
heater moves on, pure metal crystallizes, while the impurities pass into the
adjacent molten part. In this way, the impurities are swept from one end of
the bar to the other. By repeating the process, ultrapure metal can be
obtained.

5
3) Floatation cell

Flotation is a physico-chemical separation process that uses the difference in surface properties of the
valuable minerals and the unwanted gangue minerals. The theory of froth flotation is complex, involving
three phases (solids, water, and froth) with many sub processes and interactions. The process of material
being recovered by flotation from the pulp comprises three mechanisms which included:(i)Selective
attachment to air bubbles (ii) Entrainment in the water which passes through the froth (ii)Physical

6
entrapment between particles in the froth attached to air bubbles. Flotation process includes the following
steps:
1. Crushing the ores to liberate the mineral particles.
2. Reagent conditioning to achieve hydrophobic surface charges on the desired particles.

3. Collection and upward transport by bubbles in an intimate contact with air or nitrogen.

4. Formation of a stable froth on the surface of the flotation cell.

5. Separation of the mineral laden froth from the bath (flotation cell).

Chemicals used for the flotation play an important role in this process, because they have an influence on
the different flotation (surface) properties of minerals. They can be divided into these groups:
1) Collectors –. The most important reagents are the collectors, which adsorb on mineral surfaces,
rendering them hydrophobic (or aerophilic) and facilitating bubble attachment. Collectors are used to alter
the surface properties of the particles and facilitate the attachment of air bubbles. Some of the chemicals
which are used as collectors includes methyl isobutyl carbinol(MIBC) and pine oil.
2) Frothers – the reagents that must modify the surface tension of the minerals to be floated, i.e. permit
transportation of valuable mineral to the froth phase. The frothers help maintain a reasonably stable froth.
Cresol Acid and Heavy Pyridine are used as frothers
3) Regulators – control the interaction of collectors between individual minerals, i.e. they can increase or
decrease the selective adsorption of collectors on specific minerals for achieving the separation of
individual minerals. Modifying reagents can change the pH of the pulp.
a) Modifier - change the pH of the pulp.
b) Depressant – adsorption of modifying reagents on mineral surfaces create a hydrophilic mineral
surface that cannot react with collectors.
c) Activators - remove collector coatings from the mineral surface, causing depression of the

4) Importance of particulate size reduction in ore dressing

 So that the mineral of interest can be easily separated from the gangue
 To increase surface area available for the next processes for example in pyrometalurgy and
hydrometallurgy where ore of reduced surface area is required
 To liberate valuable minerals held within particles
 To cut cost because smaller particulate size are cheap to work with than big ore size

7
5) There are many different sources of energy that are used in mines and mineral processing companies
for production of metal and metal alloys.

Source of energy explanation

i) Fossil Fuels  Fossil fuels provide the power for most of the world, primarily
(Coal, Oil and using coal and oil.
Natural Gas)  A fuel is burnt to produce thermal energy. For example coal is
usually burnt in the blast furnace to produce energy which is
used extract iron from iron ore.
ii) Hydroelectric  Hydroelectric energy is energy derived from the movement of
Energy(water) water. Water has mass. It falls and flows downward due to
gravity. When it moves, it has kinetic energy which can be
harnessed.
 This energy which is produced is used to produce metal and
metal alloys e.g. during the ectrolysis where impure metal is
purified
Solar energy(sun)  This is the energy which is obtained from the sun.
 Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is
harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as
solar heating, photovoltaic, solar thermal energy.
 Solar energy can be used in electrolysis cell

6) The word pyrolysis comes from the Greek words "pyro" which means fire and "lysis" which means
separating. Pyrolysis is a process of chemically decomposing organic materials at elevated temperatures
in the absence of oxygen. The process typically occurs at temperatures above 430°C (800°F) and under
pressure. It involves a change of chemical composition and is irreversible. Pyrolysis is most commonly
used in the treatment of organic materials. It is one of the processes involved in charring wood. Pyrolysis
can be defined as the thermal decomposition of biomass occurring in the absence of oxygen. . Pyrolysis
offers a flexible and attractive way of converting solid biomass into an easily stored and transported
liquid, which can be successfully used for the production of heat, power and chemicals. The pyrolysis
process is very dependent on the moisture content of the feedstock, which should be around 10%. At
higher moisture contents, high levels of water are produced and at lower levels there is a risk that the
process only produces dust instead of oil. Unlike other high-temperature processes like hydrolysis and

8
combustion, pyrolysis does not involve reaction with water, oxygen or other reagents. However, as it is
practically not possible to achieve an oxygen- free environment, a small amount of oxidation always
occurs in any pyrolysis system. There are three types of pyrolysis reactions differentiated by the
processing time and temperature of the biomass:

(i) Slow Pyrolysis

Slow pyrolysis is characterized by lengthy solids and gas residence times, low temperatures and slow
biomass heating rates. 

(ii) Flash Pyrolysis

Flash pyrolysis occurs at rapid heating rates and moderate temperatures between 400 and 600°C.
However, vapor residence time of this process is less than 2s. Flash pyrolysis produces fewer amounts of
gas and tar when compared to slow pyrolysis.

(iii) Fast Pyrolysis

This process is primarily used to produce bio-oil and gas. During the process, biomass is rapidly heated
to temperatures of 650 to 1000°C. Depending on the desired amount of bio-oil or gas products. Char is
accumulated in large quantities and has to be removed frequently.

7) The pyrolysis treatment with biomass is a promising technology for the remediation of chromite-ore-
processing residue (COPR). However, the mechanism of this process is still unclear. In this study, the
behavior of pyrolysis reduction of Cr(VI) by cellulose, the main component of biomass, was elucidated.
The results showed that the volatile fraction (VF) of cellulose, ie. gas and tar, was responsible for Cr(VI)
reduction. All organic compounds, as well as CO and H2 in VF, potentially reduced Cr(VI). X-ray
absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy and extended X-ray absorption fine-structure
(EXAFS) spectroscopy confirmed the reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) and the formation of amorphous
Cr2O3. The remnant Cr(VI) content in COPR can be reduced below the detection limit (2 mg/kg) by the
reduction of COPR particle and extension of reaction time between VF and COPR. This study provided a
deep insight on the co-pyrolysis of cellulose with Cr(VI) in COPR and an ideal approach by which to
characterize and optimize the pyrolysis treatment for COPR by other organics.