Elements of Engineering II

Lecture 1

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 Topics for the lecture 1
• Basic definitions of current, voltage, power,
conductors and insulators
• Basic electrical circuit
• Ohm’s law
• Applications of Ohm’s law
• Resistance and conductance
• Temperature coefficient of resistance
• Inferred Absolute Temperature
• Color coding for resistor
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 ATOMS AND THEIR STRUCTURE
• A basic understanding of the
fundamental concepts of
current and voltage requires a
degree of familiarity with the
atom and its structure.
• The simplest of all atoms is the
hydrogen atom, made up of two
basic particles, the proton and
the electron, in the relative
positions shown in Fig. 2.1(a).
The nucleus of the hydrogen
atom is the proton, a positively
charged particle.

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 ATOMS AND THEIR STRUCTURE

• The orbiting electron carries a negative charge that is equal in

magnitude to the positive charge of the proton
• It has been determined by experimentation that unlike charges
attract, and like charges repel.
• The force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies Q1
and Q2 can be determined by Coulomb’s law:

• where F is in newtons, k a constant 9.0 x 109 N⋅m2/C2, Q1 and Q2

are the charges in and r is the distance in meters between the two
charges. In particular, note the squared r term in the denominator,
resulting in rapidly decreasing levels of F for increasing values of r

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 COPPER
• Copper is the most commonly used metal in the electrical /
electronics industry. An examination of its atomic structure will
help identify why it has such widespread applications. The copper
atom (Fig. 2.4) has one more electron than needed to complete the
first three shells. This incomplete outermost subshell, possessing
only one electron, and the distance between this electron and the
nucleus reveal that the twenty-ninth electron is loosely bound to
the copper atom. If this twenty-ninth electron gains sufficient
energy from the surrounding medium to leave its parent atom, it is
called a free electron. In one cubic inch of copper at room
temperature, there are approximately 1.4 x 1024 free electrons.
Other metals that exhibit the same properties as copper, but to a
different degree, are silver, gold, aluminum, and tungsten.

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 CURRENT
• Consider a short length of
copper wire cut with an
imaginary perpendicular
plane, producing the
circular cross section shown
in Fig. 2.5. At room
temperature with no
external forces applied,
there exists within the
copper wire the random
motion of free electrons
created by the thermal
energy that the electrons
gain from the surrounding
medium.

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THE COPPER ATOM

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 CURRENT
• Within an array of positive ions and free the free electrons
find themselves continually gaining or losing energy by
virtue of their changing direction and velocity. Some of the
factors responsible for this random motion include
– the collisions with positive ions and other electrons,
– the attractive forces for the positive ions, and
– the force of repulsion that exists between electrons.
• This random motion of free electrons is such that over a
period of time, the number of electrons moving to the right
across the circular cross section of Fig. 2.5 is exactly equal
to the number passing over to the left.
• With no external forces applied, the net flow of charge in
a conductor in any one direction is zero.

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 CURRENT
• Current is defined as the flow of charge per
unit time
• The current in amperes can be calculated
using the following equation:

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 Basic Electric Circuit
• Let us connect copper
wire between two battery
terminals and a light bulb,
as shown in Fig. 2.7, to
create the simplest of
electric circuits.
• Bulb uses tungsten
filament. It has high
melting point (3695 K)

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 CURRENT
• The battery, at the expense of chemical energy,
places a net positive charge at one terminal and a
net negative charge on the other.
• The instant the final connection is made, the free
electrons (of negative charge) will drift toward
the positive terminal, while the positive ions left
behind in the copper wire will simply oscillate in a
mean fixed position.
• The negative terminal is a “supply” of electrons to
be drawn from when the electrons of the copper
wire drift toward the positive terminal

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 CURRENT
• The chemical activity of the battery will
absorb the electrons at the positive terminal
and will maintain a steady supply of electrons
at the negative terminal. The flow of charge
(electrons) through the bulb will heat up the
filament of the bulb through friction to the
point that it will glow red hot and emit the
desired light

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 Current
• If 6.242 x 1018 electrons
drift at uniform velocity
through the imaginary
circular cross section of
Fig. 2.7 in 1 second, the
flow of charge, or
current, is said to be 1
ampere (A) in honor of
André Marie Ampère

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 COLUMB
• One coulomb (C) of charge is defined as the
total charge associated with 6.242x1018
electrons.
• The charge associated with one electron can
then be determined from

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 EXAMPLE 2.2
• Determine the time required for 4 x1016
electrons to pass through the imaginary
surface of Fig. 2.7 if the current is 5 mA.

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 VOLTAGE
• The flow of charge described in the previous section is
established by an external “pressure” derived from the
energy that a mass has by virtue of its position:
potential energy.
• Energy, by definition, is the capacity to do work. If a
mass (m) is raised to some height (h) above a reference
plane, it has a measure of potential energy expressed
in joules (J) that is determined by
W (potential energy) = mgh ( joules, J)
– where g is the gravitational acceleration (9.754 m/s2).
• This mass now has the “potential” to do work such as
crush an object placed on the reference plane

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 Potential and Voltage
• Electric potential: If W is the work done in moving a
unit positive charge q from infinity(Reference point) to
a certain point in the field, the electric potential V at
this point is given by:
V = W/q
• Voltage: It is the difference in potential between any
two arbitrary points.
• Electromotive force (emf): The force that establishes
the flow of charge (or current) in a system due to the
application of a difference in potential. This term is not
applied that often in today’s literature but is associated
primarily with sources of energy.

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 VOLTAGE
• A potential difference of 1 volt (V) exists
between two points if 1 joule (J) of energy is
exchanged in moving 1 coulomb (C) of charge
between the two points
• The unit of measurement volt was chosen to
honor Alessandro Volta

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 VOLTAGE
• If one joule of energy (1
J) is required to move
the one coulomb (1 C)
of charge of Fig. 2.10
from position x to
position y, the potential
difference or voltage
between the two points
is one volt (1 V).

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 VOLTAGE
• The potential difference between two points is
determined by the following expression:

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 EXAMPLE
• Find the potential difference between two
points in an electrical system if 60 J of energy
are expended by a charge of 20 C between
these two points

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 EXAMPLE
• Determine the energy expended moving a
charge of 50 mC through a potential
difference of 6 V.

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 dc Voltage Sources
• The symbol used for all dc voltage supplies is
shown in Fig. 2.11.
• Dc voltage sources can be divided into three
broad categories:
– batteries (chemical action),
– generators (electromechanical) and
– power supplies (rectification).

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 dc Voltage Sources
• dc voltage source will provide ideally a fixed
terminal voltage, even though the current
demand from the electrical/electronic system
may vary

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 dc Current Sources
• The current source will supply, ideally, a fixed
current to an electrical/electronic system,
even though there may be variations in the
terminal voltage as determined by the system

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 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
• Conductors are those materials that permit a
generous flow of electrons with very little
external force (voltage) applied.
In addition,
• good conductors typically have only one electron
in the valence (most distant from the nucleus)
ring.
• Insulators are those materials that have very few
free electrons and require a large applied potential
(voltage) to establish a measurable current level
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 OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s law in honor of Georg Simon Ohm

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OHM’S LAW

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OHM’S LAW

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 EXAMPLE
Determine the current resulting from the
application of a 9-V battery across a network
with a resistance of 2.2 Ohm.

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 EXAMPLE
• Calculate the resistance of a 60-W bulb if a
current of 500 mA results from an applied
voltage of 120 V.

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Ohm’s law

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Application of OHM’s law

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Application of OHM’s law

LED 2V, 20mA

E 9V−2V 7
R= = = = 350Ω
I 20mA 0.02 34
 DEFINING POLARITIES
• For an isolated resistive element, the polarity of the
voltage drop is as shown in Fig. 4.3(a) for the indicated
current direction. A reversal in current will reverse the
polarity, as shown in Fig. 4.3(b). In general, the flow of
charge is from a high (+) to a low (-) potential. Polarities
as established by current direction will become
increasingly important in the analysis to follow.

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POWER

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POWER

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 RESISTANCE
• The flow of charge through any material
encounters an opposing force similar in many
respects to mechanical friction. This opposition,
due to the collisions between electrons and other
atoms in the material, which converts electrical
energy into another form of energy such as heat,
is called the resistance of the material.
• The unit of measurement of resistance is the
ohm, for which the symbol is Ω , the capital
Greek letter omega.

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 RESISTANCE
• As the temperature of most conductors increases, the
increased motion of the particles within the molecular
structure makes it increasingly difficult for the “free”
carriers to pass through, and the resistance level increases.
• At a fixed temperature of 20°C (room temperature), the
resistance is related to the other three factors by

• where ρ (Greek letter rho) is a characteristic of the material

called the resistivity (Ω-cm),
l is the length of the sample c(m),
A is the cross-sectional (cm2) area of the sample.

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 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF
RESISTANCE
• Since the electrical resistance of a conductor such
as copper wire is dependent upon the collision
process within the wire, the resistance could be
expected to increase with temperature since
there will be more collision.

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 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF
RESISTANCE

Where R is the conductor resistance at temperature

T and Ro is the conductor resistance at
temperature To, and α is the temperature
coefficient of resistance having the dimension of
an inverse temperature (1/K).

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TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF
RESISTANCE

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 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF
RESISTANCE
• For good conductors, an increase in
temperature will result in an increase in the
resistance level. Consequently, conductors
have a positive temperature coefficient.
• For semiconductor materials, an increase in
temperature will result in a decrease in the
resistance level.Consequently, semiconductors
have negative temperature coefficients.

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 Inferred Absolute Temperature

• The temperature of -234.5°C is called the inferred absolute temperature

of copper. For different conducting materials, the intersection of the
straight-line approximation will occur at different temperatures.
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 CONDUCTANCE
• By finding the reciprocal of the resistance of a material, we have a
measure of how well the material will conduct electricity.
• The quantity is called conductance, has the symbol G, and is
measured in siemens (S).

• A resistance of 1 M is equivalent to a conductance of 106 S, and a

resistance of 10 is equivalent to a conductance of 101 S.
• The larger the conductance, therefore, the less the resistance and
the greater the conductivity.
• increasing the area or decreasing either the length or the
• resistivity will increase the conductance.

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 COLOR CODING AND
STANDARD RESISTOR VALUES
Or how to read those little resistors!

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 Resistor Color Code
How to find the value of the resistor?

1st band color gives 1st number

2nd band color gives 2nd number

3rd band color gives multiplier

4th band color gives tolerance or ±

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 • Example:
• First color is red which is 2
• Second color is red which is
2
• Third color is black
• Tolerance is Gold which is
5%
Therefore the resistance is:
2 2 x 100 = 22 Ohms ± 10%

B B ROY of Great Britain has Very Good Wife (Use this sentence to remember) 48
 Resistor color coding
 If you have an
• Red Black Yellow Silver
resistor
• What is it’s resistance?
1st band color gives 1st number

2nd band color gives 2nd number

3rd band color gives multiplier

4th band color gives tolerance or ±

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 Resistor color coding
 If you have an • First color is red which is
• Red Black Yellow Silver 2
resistor • Second color is black
• What is it’s resistance? which is 0
• Third color is yellow
which is 10,000
• Tolerance is silver which is
10%
Therefore the equation is:
20x = 200,000
Ohms ± 10%

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 Practice
If you have an
• Orange Orange Brown Gold resistor
• What is it’s resistance?
1st band color gives 1st number

2nd band color gives 2nd number

3rd band color gives multiplier

4th band color gives tolerance or ±

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 Practice
• If you have an
• Orange Orange Brown Gold resistor
• What is it’s resistance?
• The first orange means 3
• The second orange means 3
• The brown means 1 zero
• The gold means ± 5%
• So answer is 33 x ohms 5%
• 330 ohms ± 5%

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 Resistor color coding
Find the resistance of the
given resistor?

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 Examples
• EXAMPLE 4.3 Calculate the current through
the 2-k resistor of if the voltage drop across it
is 16 V.
• EXAMPLE 4.4 Calculate the voltage that must
be applied across the soldering iron to
establish a current of 1.5 A through the iron if
its internal resistance is 80 Ohm.

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 Examples
• EXAMPLE 4.7 What is the power dissipated
by a 5-Ohm resistor if the current is 4 A?
• EXAMPLE 4.9 Determine the current through
a 5-k resistor when the power dissipated by
the element is 20 mW.

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