BIOLOGY PRJOECT

Submitted By:-
MUDIT AGRAWAL
11A-1
Submitted By:-
MR. SATYENDRA SING
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
“There are times when silence speak so much more loudly than
words of praise to only as good as belittle a person, whose word
do not express, but only put a veneer over true felling, which are
gratitude at this point of time”.
I would like to express our sincere gratitude to our biology
teacher MR. SATYENDRA SINGH for his vital support, guidance
and encouragement- without which this project would have
come forth.
I would also like to express my gratitude to the staff of the
Department of Biology at MAHESHWARI PUBLIC SCHOOL,
JAWAHAR NAGAR, JAIPUR for their support during the making
of the project.
This project was an amiable as well as inspiring assignment to
me for achieving the success
 CERTIFICATE
This is hereby to certify that the original and
genuine investigation work has been carried
out to investigate about the subject matter
and satisfactorily by MUDIT AGRAWAL OF
CLASS 11A-1 , MAHESHWARI PUBLIC SCHOOL
JAIPUR regarding his projected titled "

TEACHER SIGNATURE
 TOPIC

CELL DIVISION
(MITOSIS)

CONTENT:-
A. INTRODUCTION
B. DISCOVERY
C. MITOSIS
I. PROPHASE
II. METAPHASE
III. ANAPHASE
IV. TELOPHASE
D.CYTOKINESIS
E. SIGNIFICANCE AND VARIATION IN MITOSIS
:INTRODUCTION
In cell biology, mitosis is a part of the cell cycle when
replicated chromosomes are separated into two new
nuclei. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is
preceded by the S stage of interphase (during which
the DNA is replicated) and is often accompanied or
followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm,
organelles and cell membrane into two new cells
containing roughly equal shares of these cellular
components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define
the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cycle—the
division of the mother cell into two daughter cells
genetically identical to each other.
Mitosis in an animal cell (phases ordered counter-
clockwise).
Mitosis divides the chromosomes in a cell nucleus.
Onion (Allium) cells in different phases of the cell
cycle enlarged 800 diameters. a. non-dividing cells b.
nuclei preparing for division (spireme-stage) c.
dividing cells showing mitotic figures e. pair of
daughter-cells shortly after division
The process of mitosis is divided into stages
corresponding to the completion of one set of activities
and the start of the next. These stages are prophase,
prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already
duplicated, condense and attach to spindle fibers that
pull one copy of each chromosome to opposite sides of
the cell. The result is two genetically identical
daughter nuclei. The rest of the cell may then continue
to divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells.
Producing three or more daughter cells instead of
normal two is a mitotic error called tripolar mitosis or
multipolar mitosis (direct cell triplication /
multiplication). Other errors during mitosis can
induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) or cause
mutations. Certain types of cancer can arise from
such mutations.
Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells and the
process varies in different organisms.[6] For
example, animals undergo an "open" mitosis, where
the nuclear envelope breaks down before the
chromosomes separate, while fungi undergo a
"closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an
intact cell nucleus.[7]Furthermore, most animal cells
undergo a shape change, known as mitotic cell
rounding, to adopt a near spherical morphology at
the start of mitosis. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a
nucleus, divide by a different process called binary
fission.
Discovery
German zoologist Otto Bütschli might have claimed
the discovery of the process presently known as
"mitosis", a term coined by Walther Flemming in
1882.
MITOSIS:-
Mitosis was discovered in frog, rabbit, and cat cornea
cells in 1873 and described for the first time by the
Polish histologist Wacław Mayzel in 1875. The term
is derived from the Greek word μίτος mitos "warp
thread".

The primary result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the

transfer of a parent cell's genome into two daughter
cells. The genome is composed of a number of
chromos
omes—complexes of tightly coiled DNA that contain
genetic information vital for proper cell function.
Because each resultant daughter cell should be
genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell
must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis.
This occurs during the S phase of interphase.
Chromosome duplication results in two identical sister
chromatids bound together by cohesin proteins at the
centromere.
When mitosis begins, the chromosomes condense and
become visible. In some eukaryotes, for example
animals, the nuclear envelope, which segregates the
DNA from the cytoplasm, disintegrates into small
vesicles. The nucleolus, which makes ribosomes in the
cell, also disappears. Microtubules project from
opposite ends of the cell, attach to the centromeres,
and align the chromosomes centrally within the cell.
The microtubules then contract to pull the sister
chromatids of each chromosome apart. Sister
chromatids at this point are called daughter
chromosomes. As the cell elongates, corresponding
daughter chromosomes are pulled toward opposite
ends of the cell and condense maximally in late
anaphase. A new nuclear envelope forms around the
separated daughter chromosomes, which decondense
to form interphase nuclei.
During mitotic progression, typically after the
anaphase onset, the cell may undergo cytokinesis. In
animal cells, a cell membrane pinches inward between
the two developing nuclei to produce two new cells. In
plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two nuclei.
Cytokinesis does not always occur; coenocytic (a type
of multinucleate condition) cells undergo mitosis
without cytokinesis.
Phases of cell cycle and mitosis
Interphase:-
The mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the
cell cycle. It alternates with the much longer
interphase, where the cell prepares itself for the
process of cell division. Interphase is divided into
three phases: G1 (first gap), S (synthesis), and G2
(second gap). During all three phases, the cell grows
by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles.
However, chromosomes are replicated only during the
S phase. Thus, a cell grows (G1), continues to grow
as it duplicates its chromosomes (S), grows more and
prepares for mitosis (G2), and finally divides (M)
before restarting the cycle. All these phases in the cell
cycle are highly regulated by cyclins, cyclin-
dependent kinases, and other cell cycle proteins. The
phases follow one another in strict order and there are
"checkpoints" that give the cell cues to proceed from
one phase to another. Cells may also temporarily or
permanently leave the cell cycle and enter G0phase to
stop dividing. This can occur when cells become
overcrowded (density-dependent inhibition) or when
they differentiate to carry out specific functions for
the organism, as is the case for human heart muscle
cells and neurons. Some G0 cells have the ability to
re-enter the cell cycle.
Preprophase:-
In plant cells only, prophase is preceded by a pre-
prophase stage. In highly vacuolated plant cells, the
nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before
mitosis can begin. This is achieved through the
formation of a phragmosome, a transverse sheet of
cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane
of cell division. In addition to phragmosome
formation, preprophase is characterized by the
formation of a ring of microtubules and actin
filaments (called preprophase band) underneath the
plasma membrane around the equatorial plane of the
future mitotic spindle. This band marks the position
where the cell will eventually divide. The cells of
higher plants (such as the flowering plants) lack
centrioles; instead, microtubules form a spindle on the
surface of the nucleus and are then organized into a
spindle by the chromosomes themselves, after the
nuclear envelope breaks down. The preprophase band
disappears during nuclear envelope breakdown and
spindle formation in prometaphase.
Prophase.
During prophase, which occurs after G2
interphase, the cell prepares to divide by tightly
condensing its chromosomes and initiating mitotic
spindle formation, this process is called chromosome
condensation. During interphase, the genetic material
in the nucleus consists of loosely packed chromatin.
At the onset of prophase, chromatin fibers condense
into discrete chromosomes that are typically visible at
high magnification through a light microscope. In this
stage, chromosomes are long, thin and thread-like.
Each chromosome has two chromatids. The two
chromatids are joined at a place called centromere.
Gene transcription ceases during prophase and does
not resume until late anaphase to early G1 phase.
The nucleolus also disappears during early
prophase.
Condensing chromosomes. Interphase nucleus (left),
condensing chromosomes (middle) and condensed
chromosomes (right).
Close to the nucleus of animal cells are structures
called centrosomes, consisting of a pair of centrioles
surrounded by a loose collection of proteins. The
centrosome is the coordinating center for the cell's
microtubules. A cell inherits a single centrosome at
cell division, which is duplicated by the cell before a
new round of mitosis begins, giving a pair of
centrosomes. The two centrosomes polymerize tubulin
to help form a microtubule spindle apparatus. Motor
proteins then push the centrosomes along these
microtubules to opposite sides of the cell. Although
centrosomes help organize microtubule assembly, they
are not essential for the formation of the spindle
apparatus, since they are absent from plants, and are
not absolutely required for animal cell mitosis.
Prometaphase
Prometaphase
At the beginning of prometaphase in animal cells,
phosphorylation of nuclear lamins causes the nuclear
envelope to disintegrate into small membrane vesicles.
As this happens, microtubules invade the nuclear
space. This is called open mitosis, and it occurs in
some multicellular organisms. Fungi and some
protists, such as algae or trichomonads, undergo a
variation called closed mitosis where the spindle
forms inside the nucleus, or the microtubules penetrate
the intact nuclear envelope.
In late prometaphase, kinetochore microtubules begin
to search for and attach to chromosomal kinetochores.
A kinetochore is a proteinaceous microtubule-binding
structure that forms on the chromosomal centromere
during late prophase. A number of polar
microtubules find and interact with corresponding
polar microtubules from the opposite centrosome to
form the mitotic spindle. Although the kinetochore
structure and function are not fully understood, it is
known that it contains some form of molecular motor.
When a microtubule connects with the kinetochore, the
motor activates, using energy from ATP to "crawl"
up the tube toward the originating centrosome. This
motor activity, coupled with polymerisation and
depolymerisation of microtubules, provides the
pulling force necessary to later separate the
chromosome's two chromatids.
Metaphase :-
A cell in late metaphase. All
chromosomes (blue) but one have arrived at the
metaphase plate. After the microtubules have located
and attached to the kinetochores in prometaphase, the
two centrosomes begin pulling the chromosomes
towards opposite ends of the cell. The resulting
tension causes the chromosomes to align along the
metaphase plate or equatorial plane, an imaginary
line that is centrally located between the two
centrosomes (at approximately the midline of the
cell). To ensure equitable distribution of chromosomes
at the end of mitosis, the metaphase checkpoint
guarantees that kinetochores are properly attached to
the mitotic spindle and that the chromosomes are
aligned along the metaphase plate. If the cell
successfully passes through the metaphase
checkpoint, it proceeds to anaphase.
ANAPHASE:-
During anaphase A, the cohesins that bind sister
chromatids together are cleaved, forming two identical
daughter chromosomes. Shortening of the kinetochore
microtubules pulls the newly formed daughter
chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell. During
anaphase B, polar microtubules push against each
other, causing the cell to elongate. In late anaphase,
chromosomes also reach their overall maximal
condensation level, to help chromosome segregation
and the re-formation of the nucleus. In most animal
cells, anaphase A precedes anaphase B, but some
vertebrate egg cells demonstrate the opposite order of
events.
Telophase:-
Telophase (from the Greek word telo
meaning "end") is a reversal of prophase and
prometaphase events. At telophase, the polar
microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell
even more. If the nuclear envelope has broken down, a
new nuclear envelope forms using the membrane
vesicles of the parent cell's old nuclear envelope. The
new envelope forms around each set of separated
daughter chromosomes (though the membrane does
not enclose the centrosomes) and the nucleolus
reappears. Both sets of chromosomes, now
surrounded by new nuclear membrane, begin to
"relax" or decondense. Mitosis is complete. Each
daughter nucleus has an identical set of chromosomes.
Cell division may or may not occur at this time
depending on the organism.
Cytokinesis :-
Cilliate undergoing cytokinesis, with the cleavage
furrow being clearly visible.
Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis but rather a
separate process, necessary for completing cell
division. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow (pinch)
containing a contractile ring develops where the
metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the
separated nuclei. In both animal and plant cells, cell
division is also driven by vesicles derived from the
Golgi apparatus, which move along microtubules to
the middle of the cell. In plants, this structure
coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the
phragmoplast and develops into a cell wall,
separating the two nuclei. The phragmoplast is a
microtubule structure typical for higher plants,
whereas some green algae use a phycoplast
microtubule array during cytokinesis. Each daughter
cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent
cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-
phase.
There are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis
occur separately, forming single cells with multiple
nuclei. The most notable occurrence of this is among
the fungi, slime molds, and coenocytic algae, but the
phenomenon is found in various other organisms. Even
in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur
independently, for instance during certain stages of
fruit fly embryonic development.
Significance:-
Mitosis is important for the maintenance of the
chromosomal set; each cell formed receives
chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal
in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell.
Mitosis occurs in the following circumstances:
Development and growth
The number of cells within an organism increases by
mitosis. This is the basis of the development of a
multicellular body from a single cell, i.e., zygote and
also the basis of the growth of a multicellular body.
Cell replacement
In some parts of body, e.g. skin and digestive tract,
cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by
new ones. New cells are formed by mitosis and so are
exact copies of the cells being replaced. In like
manner, red blood cells have short lifespan (only
about 4 months) and new RBCs are formed by
mitosis.
Regeneration
Some organisms can regenerate body parts. The
production of new cells in such instances is achieved
by mitosis. For example, starfish regenerate lost arms
through mitosis.
Asexual reproduction
Some organisms produce genetically similar
offspring through asexual reproduction. For
example, the hydra reproduces asexually by
budding. The cells at the surface of hydra undergo
mitosis and form a mass called a bud. Mitosis
continues in the cells of the bud and this grows into a
new individual. The same division happens during
asexual reproduction or vegetative propagation in
plants.
Cell shape changes during mitosis
Cell shape changes through mitosis for a typical
animal cell cultured on a flat surface. The cell
undergoes mitotic cell rounding during spindle
assembly and then divides via cytokinesis. The
actomyosin cortex is depicted in red,
DNA/chromosomes purple, microtubules green, and
membrane and retraction fibers in black. Rounding
also occurs in live tissue, as described in the text.
Main article: Mitotic cell rounding
In animal tissue, most cells round up to a near-
spherical shape during mitosis. In epithelia and
epidermis, an efficient rounding process is correlated
with proper mitotic spindle alignment and subsequent
correct positioning of daughter cells. Moreover,
researchers have found that if rounding is heavily
suppressed it may result in spindle defects, primarily
pole splitting and failure to efficiently capture
chromosomes. Therefore, mitotic cell rounding is
thought to play a protective role in ensuring accurate
mitosis.
Rounding forces are driven by reorganization of F-
actin and myosin (actomyosin) into a contractile
homogeneous cell cortex that 1) rigidifies the cell
periphery and 2) facilitates generation of
intracellular hydrostatic pressure (up to 10 fold
higher than interphase). The generation of
intracellular pressure is particularly critical under
confinement, such as would be important in a tissue
scenario, where outward forces must be produced to
round up against surrounding cells and/or the
extracellular matrix. Generation of pressure is
dependent on formin-mediated F-actin nucleation[48]
and Rho kinase (ROCK)-mediated myosin II
contraction, both of which are governed
upstream by signaling pathways RhoA and ECT
through the activity of Cdk1. Due to its importance in
mitosis, the molecular components and dynamics of
the mitotic actomyosin cortex is an area of active
research.
Errors and variations of mitosis
An abnormal (tripolar) mitosis (12 o'clock position)
in a precancerous lesion of the stomach (H&E stain)
Errors can occur during mitosis, especially during
early embryonic development in humans.[49] Mitotic
errors can create aneuploid cells that have too few or
too many of one or more chromosomes, a condition
associated with cancer.[50] Early human embryos,
cancer cells, infected or intoxicated cells can also
suffer from pathological division into three or more
daughter cells (tripolar or multipolar mitosis),
resulting in severe errors in their chromosomal
complements.[4]
In nondisjunction, sister chromatids fail to separate
during anaphase.[51] One daughter cell receives both
sister chromatids from the nondisjoining chromosome
and the other cell receives none. As a result, the former
cell gets three copies of the chromosome, a condition
known as trisomy, and the latter will have only one
copy, a condition known as monosomy. On occasion,
when cells experience nondisjunction, they fail to
complete cytokinesis and retain both nuclei in one cell,
resulting in binucleated cells.
Anaphase lag occurs when the movement of one
chromatid is impeded during anaphase. This may be
caused by a failure of the mitotic spindle to properly
attach to the chromosome. The lagging chromatid is
excluded from both nuclei and is lost. Therefore, one
of the daughter cells will be monosomic for that
chromosome.
Endoreduplication (or endoreplication) occurs when
chromosomes duplicate but the cell does not
subsequently divide. This results in polyploid cells
or, if the chromosomes duplicates repeatedly,
polytene chromosomes. Endoreduplication is found in
many species and appears to be a normal part of
development. Endomitosis is a variant of
endoreduplication in which cells replicate their
chromosomes during S phase and enter, but
prematurely terminate, mitosis. Instead of being
divided into two new daughter nuclei, the replicated
chromosomes are retained within the original nucleus.
The cells then re-enter G1 and S phase and replicate
their chromosomes again. This may occur multiple
times, increasing the chromosome number with each
round of replication and endomitosis. Platelet-
producing megakaryocytes go through endomitosis
during cell differentiation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1) http://www.wikepedia.com,
2) NCERT of Biology
3) Pradeep Publications Book of
Biology
4) http://www.slideshare.com,
THE

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