PRACTICE SET 4

AGGRESSION
When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggres-
sive behavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding
aggressive behavior in people.
The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear to
be involved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response
to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypo-
thalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimula-
tion of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many
animals. In people, however, whose brains are more complex, other brain structures
apparently moderate possible instincts.
An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggests that aggres-
sion is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behav-
ior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin’s
theory of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can
find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those individu-
als who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle
for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next genera-
tion. In many species, such characteristics include aggressiveness. Because aggres-
sive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked
to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.
The sociobiological view has been attacked on numerous grounds. One is that
people’s capacity to outwit other species, not their aggressiveness, appears to be the
dominant factor in human survival. Another is that there is too much variation among
people to believe that they are dominated by, or at the mercy of, aggressive impulses.
The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach
hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including
aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are
inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent
aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most
attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. Yet children, also
fearing their parents’ punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress
most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as “steam
engines.” By holding in rather than venting “steam,” we set the stage for future explo-
sions. Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward
parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed
toward strangers later in life.
According to psychodynamic theory, the best ways to prevent harmful aggres-
sion may be to encourage less harmful aggression. In the steam-engine analogy, ver-
bal aggression may vent some of the aggressive steam. So might cheering on one’s
favorite sports team. Psychoanalysts, therapists adopting a psychodynamic approach,
refer to the venting of aggressive impulses as “catharsis.”1 Catharsis is theorized to be
a safety valve. But research findings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed. Some

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studies suggest that catharsis leads to reductions in tension and a lowered likelihood
of future aggression. Other studies, however, suggest that letting some steam escape
actually encourages more aggression later on.
The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influ-
enced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations, and by choice.
For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified—as dur-
ing wartime—are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a partic-
ular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified,
are less likely to behave aggressively.
One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger
unpleasant feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not
automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggres-
sively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and
their interpretation of other people’s motives. Supporting evidence comes from
research showing that aggressive people often distort other people’s motives. For
example, they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not.
1. Catharsis: In psychodynamic theory, the purging of strong emotions or the relieving of tensions

P The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear to be

A involved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response
R
A to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypo-
G
R thalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimula-
A
P tion of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many
H
animals. In people, however, whose brains are more complex, other brain structures
2 apparently moderate possible instincts.

Directions: Mark your answer by filling in the oval next to your choice.

1. According to paragraph 2, what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is

related to the hypothalamus?
 Some aggressive animal species have a highly developed hypothalamus.
 Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus delays animals’ inborn reaction pat-
terns.
 Animals behaving aggressively show increased activity in the hypothalamus.
 Animals who lack a hypothalamus display few aggressive tendencies.

An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggests that aggression

is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior,
P
A including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin’s theory
R of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food
A
G and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those individuals who
R
A possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for exis-
P
H tence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. In
3 many species, such characteristics include aggressiveness. Because aggressive indi-
viduals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggres-
sive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.

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2. According to Darwin’s theory of evolution, members of a species are forced to

struggle for survival because
 not all individuals are skilled in finding food
 individuals try to defend their young against attackers
 many more individuals are born than can survive until the age of reproduction
 individuals with certain genes are more likely to reach adulthood

The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold

that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggres-
sion. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable
P
A reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive
R
A
impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive
G parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. Yet children, also fearing
R
A their parents’ punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggres-
P
H sive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as “steam engines.” By
5 holding in rather than venting “steam,” we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up
aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indi-
rect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers
later in life.

3. The word “ inevitable ” in the passage 6. According to paragraph 5, Freud

is closest in meaning to believed that children experience
 unavoidable conflict between a desire to vent
 regrettable aggression on their parents and
 controllable  a frustration that their parents do not
 unsuitable give them everything they want
 a fear that their parents will punish
4. The word “ gratify ” in the passage is them and stop loving them
closest in meaning to  a desire to take care of their parents
 identify  a desire to vent aggression on other
 modify family members
 satisfy
 simplify 7. Freud describes people as “ steam
engines ” in order to make the point
5. The word “ they ” in the passage that people
refers to  deliberately build up their aggres-
 future explosions sion to make themselves stronger
 pent-up aggressive impulses  usually release aggression in explo-
 outlets sive ways
 indirect ways  must vent their aggression to pre-
vent it from building up
 typically lose their aggression if they
do not express it

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P The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influ-
A
R enced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations, and by choice.
A
G For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified—as dur-
R ing wartime—are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a partic-
A
P ular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified,
H
are less likely to behave aggressively.
7

P One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant
A
R feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically.
A Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not
G
R on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpre-
A
P tation of other people’s motives. Supporting evidence comes from research show-
H
ing that aggressive people often distort other people’s motives. For example, they
8 assume that other people mean them harm when they do not.

8. Which of the sentences below best 9. According to the cognitive approach

expresses the essential information described in paragraphs 7 and 8, all
in the highlighted sentence in the of the following may influence the
passage? Incorrect answer choices decision whether to act aggressively
change the meaning in impor- EXCEPT a person’s
tant ways or leave out essential  moral values
information.  previous experiences with
 People who believe that they are aggression
fighting a just war act aggressively  instinct to avoid aggression
while those who believe that they  beliefs about other people’s
are fighting an unjust war do not. intentions
 People who believe that aggression
is necessary and justified are more 10. The word “ distort ” in the passage is
likely to act aggressively than those closest in meaning to
who believe differently.  mistrust
 People who normally do not believe  misinterpret
that aggression is necessary and  criticize
justified may act aggressively during  resent
wartime.
 People who believe that aggression
is necessary and justified do not
necessarily act aggressively during
wartime.

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The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold

that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggres-
sion. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable
P
A reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive
R
A impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive
G parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. 7 Yet children, also fearing
R
A their parents’ punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggres-
P
H sive impulses. 7 The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as “steam engines.”
5 7 By holding in rather than venting “steam,” we set the stage for future explosions.
7 Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward par-
ents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward
strangers later in life.

11. Look at the four squares [7] that indicate where the following sentence can be
added to the passage.

According to Freud, however, impulses that have been repressed continue to

exist and demand expression.

Where would the sentence best fit?

 The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach

hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, includ-
ing aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses
are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire
to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because
even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately.
According to Freud, however, impulses that have been repressed continue to
exist and demand expression. Yet children, also fearing their parents’ punish-
ment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. 7
The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as “steam engines.” 7 By holding
in rather than venting “steam,” we set the stage for future explosions. 7 Pent-up
aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents
in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward
strangers later in life.

 The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach

hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, includ-
ing aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses
are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire
to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because
even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately.
7 Yet children, also fearing their parents’ punishment and the loss of parental
love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. According to Freud, however,
impulses that have been repressed continue to exist and demand expression.
The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as “steam engines.” 7 By holding
in rather than venting “steam,” we set the stage for future explosions. 7 Pent-up
aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in

94

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 Reading Section

indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward

strangers later in life.

 The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach

hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, includ-
ing aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses
are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire
to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because
even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately.
7 Yet children, also fearing their parents’ punishment and the loss of parental
love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. 7 The Freudian perspective,
in a sense, sees us as “steam engines.” According to Freud, however, impulses
that have been repressed continue to exist and demand expression. By holding
in rather than venting “steam,” we set the stage for future explosions. 7 Pent-up
aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents
in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward
strangers later in life.

 The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach

hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including
aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are
inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to
vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even
the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. 7
Yet children, also fearing their parents’ punishment and the loss of parental love,
come to repress most aggressive impulses. 7 The Freudian perspective, in a
sense, sees us as “steam engines.” 7 By holding in rather than venting “steam,”
we set the stage for future explosions. According to Freud, however, impulses
that have been repressed continue to exist and demand expression. Pent-up
aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents
in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward
strangers later in life.

95

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Reading Section

12. Directions: Complete the table below by matching five of the six answer choices
with the approach to aggression that they exemplify. This question is worth 3
points.

Approach to Understanding Aggression Associated Claims

Biological Approach b ____________________________________
Psychodynamic Approach b ____________________________________
b ____________________________________
Cognitive Approach b ____________________________________
b ____________________________________

Answer Choices
1. Aggressive impulses toward people 4. The need to express aggressive
are sometimes expressed in indirect impulses declines with age.
ways. 5. Acting aggressively is the result of
2. Aggressiveness is often useful a choice influenced by a person’s
for individuals in the struggle for values and beliefs.
survival. 6. Repressing aggressive impulses can
3. Aggressive behavior may involve a result in aggressive behavior.
misunderstanding of other people’s
intentions.

PRACTICE SET 4 ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS

1.  This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information
that can be found in paragraph 2. The correct answer is choice 3. The ques-
tion asks specifically for evidence that “indicates that aggression in ani-
mals is related to the hypothalamus.” Answer choice 1 is not supported by
the passage. It does not discuss more and less aggressive species or relative
development of the hypothalamus. Answer choice 2 contradicts the passage.
Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus causes the instinctive reaction
of aggression; it does not delay it. Answer choice 4 is incorrect because
the passage does not cite as evidence, or even mention, the removal of the
hypothalamus.
2.  This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that
can be found in the passage. The correct answer is choice 3, “many more indi-
viduals are born than can survive until the age of reproduction.” This answer
choice is essentially a paraphrase of paragraph 3, sentence 4: “Darwin held
that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into
adulthood.” Choices 1 and 2 are not mentioned at all. Choice 4 may be true,
but it is not stated in the passage as a fact; an inference is needed to support it.

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