Guide for Busy Academics

Using Learning Outcomes to Design a Course and Assess Learning

Introduction
HE learning comprises complex mixtures of knowledge, understanding, skills and broader capabilities
that can be more or less demonstrated and assessed. It will also embody values, attitudes and
behaviours that are difficult to assess directly but which are an important part of a student’s academic
performance.

The higher education system is being encouraged to be more explicit about the nature of the learning
that programmes and modules are intending to promote. For example, through QAA policies like
programme specifications and subject benchmark statements (http://www.qaa.ac.uk). In the last
decade most HE institutions have adopted a learning outcomes approach in order to explain more
precisely the learning that teachers are seeking to promote.

HE teachers are expected to be able

to show how:

 the educational outcomes for a programme and learning outcomes for a module are being
achieved;
 that the assessment methods used are appropriate to test the achievement of the intended
outcomes;
 and that the criteria used to judge achievement are aligned to the intended learning outcomes.

This guide is designed to provide a basic introduction to these things.

What are learning outcomes?

 An outcome is simply a result or consequence of an action or process.

 A learning outcome is what results from a learning process.
 Intended learning outcomes are statements that predict what learners will have gained as a result
of learning.

From the students’ perspective, the outcomes approach communicates what they are expected to be
able to do and the criteria that will be used to assess them.

Vocabulary of course design

Learning outcomes are the actual results of learning (or rather the aspects of a student’s learning that
tutors choose to assess and reward). Course designs set out the tutor’s intentions for learning
(intended learning outcomes). These goals are part of an aspirational / expectational framework that
includes:

Aims – broad purposes or goals e.g. this course aims to…They are generally aspirational at
programme level but are more specific and achievable at the level of modules/courses.

Objectives – the specific steps that take us from where we are now towards our goals. They can be
formulated as teaching objectives (what the teacher does to promote students’ learning), as curriculum
objectives (how the curriculum supports the achievement of the intended learning) and as objectives for
students’ learning (what the students do to learn).

Intended learning outcomes – what students will know and be able to do as a result of engaging in
the learning process. They represent statements of achievement expressed from the learners’
perspective.. at the end of the course learners will know … and be able to do….Course/module learning
outcomes must be achievable and measurable. They should connect directly to the assessment criteria
that are used to judge achievement.

Course documents, programme and module specifications may or may not list all three elements of the
expectational framework. Sometimes the term objectives is used in the same sense as an intended

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learning outcome. Sometimes there is confusion because the intended learning outcomes are poorly
articulated.

The outcomes approach to learning

The outcomes model is predicated on a

teaching and learning system that is aligned. Reduced to its simplest form an outcomes approach to
learning has three interconnected components.

 an explicit statement of learning intent (intended learning outcome) expressed in a form that
permits their achievement to be demonstrated and measured.

 the process and resources to enable the outcomes to be achieved and demonstrated
(curriculum, teaching, learning methods and materials, assessment and support and guidance
methods);

 the criteria for assessing whether the intended outcomes have been achieved and for
differentiating the performance of students.

Learning outcomes and the theory of constructive alignment

Underlying the outcomes approach to defining, designing, promoting and assessing students’
learning is a useful theory of learning known as constructive alignment (Biggs 1999). The theory
connects the abstract idea of a learning outcome to the things teachers actually do to help students
learn, and the things that students do to actually learn.

The outcomes approach requires teachers to pose and answer the questions:

 what do I intend students to learn (what learning outcomes do I want them to achieve)?
 what teaching methods and curriculum design will I use to encourage students to behave in ways
that are likely to achieve these outcomes?
 what assessment tasks and criteria will tell me that students have achieved the outcomes I
intend?

How does it work?

Constructive alignment starts with the notion that the learner constructs his or her own learning
through relevant learning activities (where students’ learning is concerned – what the student does is
more important than what the teacher does). The teacher’s job is to create a learning environment that
supports the learning activities appropriate to achieving the desired learning outcomes. The key is that
all components in the teaching system – the curriculum and its intended learning outcomes, the
teaching methods used, the resources to support learning, and the assessment tasks and criteria for
evaluating learning – are aligned to each other and facilitate the achievement of the intended learning
outcomes.

The main steps in the alignment process are:

1 Defining the intended learning outcomes (which determine the teaching and curriculum objectives –
the steps we take to achieve the learning outcomes.)
2 Choosing teaching/learning activities likely to lead to, help and encourage students to attain these
intended learning outcomes.
3 Engaging students in these learning activities through the teaching process.
4 Assessing what students have learnt using methods that enable students to demonstrate the
intended learning and, in the case of formative assessment, giving feedback to help students
improve their learning.
5 Evaluating/judging how well students match learning intentions: a process that is guided through
explicit and manageable criteria.
6 Awarding marks/grades in line with these judgements.

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Not all students will meet the intended learning outcomes) as perfectly as we would want (to those that
do we award an ‘A’), a few will only meet minimally acceptable standards (call that ‘D’), others will fall in
between at ‘B’ and ‘C’. It helps to define those levels of performance by verbs. These verbs are
associated with objects e.g. the subjects being taught and the contexts for learning. The assessment
question is how well the learning outcomes match the desired outcomes.

Types of learning
Learning outcomes are often presented in terms of different types or categories of learning.
Institutions and subjects (in their benchmarking statements) are developing their own frameworks for
describing learning. Typically they include the following categories:

 Knowledge
 Understanding
 Skills: variously described as:
 Cognitive skills
 Subject specific skills (including practical/professional skills)
 Transferable skills
 Employability skills
 Capabilities
 Values (others often link values with attitudes)
 Personal development
 Progression to employment and/or further study

Writing learning outcomes

The best learning outcomes are descriptions of what the student will be able to do as a result of
studying the course or module. They can be tested for effectiveness with the question: “and how
would this be assessed?” If a clear assessment emerges, with straightforward differences between
poor and excellent standards, then you have probably got a useable learning outcome.

Intended learning outcomes:

 normally written in the future tense;
 identify the most important learning requirements (don’t try to do too much - keep the number of
learning outcomes to a manageable number typically 4 to 6 for a module);
 be achievable and assessable;
 use language which students can understand;
 relate to explicit criteria for assessing levels of achievement.

Learning outcomes are at their most useful when they focus on describing what students can do –
they might have developed understanding, but how does this manifest itself? What do they do
differently as a result of their enhanced understanding or their greater knowledge?

This outcomes approach is useful because it makes explicit the design and assessment of units and
of whole programmes – so students, examiners and quality assurance people know what is going on.
It also moves students into the centre of the picture - What do they need to learn? And how do we
(and they) know they have learnt it? – so it is one element in the shift of focus from teaching to
learning which has been so productive in recent years.

For this approach to be valuable (in planning teaching activities and methods of assessment, and in
linking with standards and levels) the best guidance is to move the statements about increased
knowledge and deeper understanding to the “Aims” of the course, and to concentrate on preparing
outcomes that are direct and assessable.

Verbs that define understanding

From the website of the American Association of Law Libraries

‘Since the learner's performance should be observable and measurable, the verb chosen for each
outcome statement should be an action verb which results in overt behaviour that can be observed

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and measured. Sample action verbs are: compile, create, plan, revise, analyse, design, select, utilize,
apply, demonstrate, prepare, use, compute, discuss, explain, predict, assess, compare, rate, critique.

Certain verbs are unclear and subject to different interpretations in terms of what action they are
specifying. Such verbs call for covert behaviour that cannot be observed or measured. These types of
verbs should be avoided: e.g. know, become aware of, appreciate, learn, understand, become familiar
with.’

Examples of verbs that you might think of using to specify different sorts of learning outcome:

The following lists are derived from 1) Alan Jenkins (Oxford Brookes) and Dave Unwin (Birkbeck) for
the National Centre for Geographic Information and Analysis (www.ncgia.ucsb.edu): 2) Mike Laycock
(UEL).

For Knowledge: Arrange, order, define, recognise, duplicate, label, identify, recognise, recall, list,
repeat, memorise, name, state, relate, reproduce, record.

For Comprehension/understanding: Classify, locate, describe, observe, recognise, discuss, report,

explain, restate, express, review, select, indicate, translate.

For Application: Apply, operate, choose, practice, demonstrate, schedule, dramatise, sketch,
employ, solve, illustrate, use, interpret, write.

For Analysis: Analyse, differentiate, plan, appraise, discriminate, calculate, distinguish, categorise,
examine, compare, experiment, contrast, question, criticise, test.
For Synthesis: Arrange, organise, initiate, formulate, assemble, manage, collect, compose, plan,
construct, prepare, create, propose, write, conceptualise, elaborate, distil, synthesise, associate,
connect, develop, produce.

For creativity: Create, imagine, visualise, hypothesise, generate ideas, associate, connect, design,
consider possibilities, adapt.

For evaluation Evaluate, estimate, measure, assess, judge, criticise, compare, appraise,
discriminate.

For problem working – Solve, resolve, identify, recognise, apply, propose, chose, implement,
assess, formulate, select, define, provide options, plan, describe a course of action.

For communication – communicate, examine, debate, respond, defend, demonstrate, express,

question, explain, advocate, articulate, formulate, justify, illustrate, summarise, present.

Verbs that reflect different levels of understanding

Biggs (1999, 2003) suggests that certain verbs reflect different levels of understanding. Some
illustrative verbs for each level of Biggs’ SOLO Taxonomy are given below. Each discipline will have
its own verbs as well and each verb has a topic object or context.
Minimal understanding, sufficient to deal with terminology, basic facts: Memorize, identify,
recognize

Descriptive understanding, knowing about several topics: Classify, describe, list.

Integrative understanding, relating facts together and understanding basic theory: apply to known
contexts, integrate, analyse, explain the aetiology.

Extended understanding, being able to go beyond what has been taught, deal creatively with new
situations: Apply to novel contexts, hypothesize, reflect, generate.

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Outcomes in the wider context

Anybody writing learning outcomes for a module should be aware of how the module fits into the
overall programme. External Examiners may also be asked to comment on the extent to which
students are demonstrating the achievement of the educational outcomes for the whole course. Given
the complexity of many courses External Examiners might expect to be given the maps that the
course team have constructed to show how the programme outcomes are developed and assessed
through the course. The key document is likely to be the programme specification but course teams
may also prepare a curriculum map which shows which outcomes are developed and assessed in
each module.

External Examiners may also be expected to comment on the extent to which the educational
outcomes listed in the relevant subject benchmarking statement are reflected in the programme
specification. The External Examiner can ask the course team to explain this relationship if it is not
clear in the programme specification.

Designing a course is a messy business

It is one thing to describe in an abstract way how to do it. It is another thing to actually do it. Designing
a course using learning outcomes is a messy iterative process. It is likely that you will start off with
some provisional learning outcomes that change as you think through what it is you want to do and
want students to learn. This is particularly the case when you come to think about assessment. The
criteria you use to generate the evidence of learning will have an important influence on the way you
express the intended learning outcomes.

An example of the process of designing a course using learning outcomes is given in an appendix.

Useful sources of information

Biggs, J.B. (1999) Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham: Society for Research in Higher
Education & Open University Press. (new edition in 2003).
Biggs J B (2002) aligning teaching and assessment to curriculum objectives. LTSN imaginative
curriculum web site www.ltsn.ac.uk/genericcentre.

University of Hertfordshire Learning and Teaching Development Centre. http://www.herts.ac.uk/tli

LTSN Generic Centre Imaginative Curriculum web site http//:www.ltsn.ac.uk/genericcentre/curriculum

QAA web site – information on programme specifications and subject benchmark statements
http://www.qaa.ac.uk.

Authors Norman Jackson, James Wisdom and Malcolm Shaw, Imaginative Curriculum project
team.
Version 1 March 2003

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 ANNEX A
Example of designing a course using learning outcomes
Norman Jackson University of Surrey

These materials are intended to provide insights into the processes of designing an outcomes-based
curriculum. It is based on two teaching sessions in the University of Surrey Teaching and Learning in
HE programme 1) An introduction to curriculum/ course design 2) Assessment, marking and course
evaluation. For the purpose of the exercise I am imagining that this is a module in a programme.

1 Course Aims – inherited from course document

 Introduce and review practice of course module design
 Help participants identify and write appropriate learning outcomes and consider planning
strategies, teaching, learning and assessment.
 Help participants develop strategies to promote quality learning, practice marking and consider
methods of course and self-evaluation.

2 What I want course participants to learn - content

 What learning outcomes are and how they can be used to design modules, plan teaching and
students’ approaches to learning and assess student learning.
 The theory of constructive alignment that underlies the outcomes model of learning
 How to apply this knowledge and learning through doing.
 How to construct an assessment strategy, a range of methods, how to construct criteria, grading
models, marking cultures, ways in which feedback might be given and assessment issues.
 Methods for evaluating curriculum designs and the impact of teaching on students’ learning
(including student feedback mechanisms).

3 This translates into a set of provisional Intended Learning Outcomes

For participants

1 To develop their knowledge about the subjects of curriculum design and assessment in the contexts
of an outcomes approach to learning

2 To be able to apply this knowledge to the evaluation of course and assessment designs

3 To construct new understandings about the curriculum and assessment that will improve their ability
to design courses and modules from basic principles

4 To recognise their own learning outcomes and develop their conceptions of teaching and learning

I also have learning outcomes - the development of the knowledge, understanding and resources to
teaching these subjects in these contexts.

4 My teaching and learning system

In order to enable students to achieve these outcomes I design a teaching and learning system –
these are my objectives for teaching and the way students will learn. It shows that I am basing my
approach on the theory of Constructive Alignment. My model of teaching embraces didactic (teacher
directed) and collaborative (peer learning) and I explain this at the start of each session.

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Figure 1 My teaching and learning system

What I do as a teacher to promote students’ learning What students do to learn

 Create design for teaching session In the classroom

 Select appropriate teaching model  Preparation – think about key concepts before
 Identify intended learning outcomes session and bring own resources (module
 Content-learning theories/approach to specs)
modelling session  Actively participate in session by sharing
 Research topics knowledge
 Objectives for teaching  Read and learn from the learning materials
 Invite participants to think about key concepts in provided
advance  Take notes
 Request resources to support approach.  Participate in small group discussions
 Prepare teaching notes and power point slides –  Evaluate, process/analyse course designs and
(learning resources) assessments
 Prepare a concise guide to main topic of learning  Engage in in-class assessment exercise
outcomes and their use in course design
 Create a series of analytical tools for the
Outside the classroom
evaluation of course designs (learning
 Reflect on what was learnt and construct
resources)
meaning for their contexts
 Teach session – part transmission – part
 Read Guide for Busy Academics on Using
facilitation
Learning Outcomes to Design Courses and
 Capture knowledge of participants
other recommended sources of information
 Identify key knowledge sources for learners
 Build portfolio of evidence of critical appraisal
 Gain feedback from students to a) inform
of own course designs.
strategy during session b) gain new knowledge
 Visit LTSN Subject and Generic Centre web
for teaching in future.
site to see what help/materials are available.

5 Designing assessment

In order to demonstrate how I would assess students learning I have to develop an assessment
process that will test the learning I am intending. I think again about my provisional list of learning
outcomes and design a new set that are more useful for evaluating learning ie my learning intentions
are influenced by what I finally decide to assess.

I create an assessment task using my own design as the basis for the problem. I will it as an in class
learning activity and involve students in a) designing a range of assessment strategies and b)
generating criteria to evaluate these strategies c) assessing the results of the task and d) drawing out
the principles they used to assess learning. It serves to provide them with experiential learning geared
to assessing learning.

6 Simultaneously I create a framework for assessing students’ learning for the

hypothetical course

My design solution (Figure 2) to enable the ILOs to be demonstrated and assessed includes ensuring
that the method will generate the type of evidence that will enable me and students to judge whether
learning has taken place.

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Figure 2 My assessment design

Revised Intended Learning Assessment Criteria to guide evaluation of whether

Outcome method/process intended learning outcomes have been
achieved
1 developed their knowledge Creation of a
about the outcomes approach to Reflective Students will need to
designing modules and courses Teaching File 1 Demonstrate that they have developed an
and assessing learning and analytical tool to evaluate course designs and
demonstrate understanding by assessment processes based on the twin
applying this knowledge to the concepts of constructive alignment and learning
critical evaluation of course and After 4 weeks – outcomes.
assessment designs, identifying Progress review based
ways in which they might be on 1000 word distillation
improved; of learning against 2 Demonstrate the use of the tool to undertake a
criteria critical evaluation of the curriculum design,
2 developed knowledge of the 10% self-assessment teaching and learning activities and assessment
theory of constructive alignment 10% tutor assessment. processes and criteria on a module that they are
and how it underlies the teaching.
learning outcomes approach;
3 Consider the ways in which feedback is gained
3 developed knowledge of End course on the achievement of intended learning
programme specifications and assessment outcomes and identify ways through which
curriculum maps and of teaching file feedback might be improved.
understand how they can be 30% self-assessment
used to make course designs 50% tutor assessment 4 Show how their module connects to the
more explicit; educational outcomes for the whole programme
by locating it within the programme specification.
4 developed knowledge of the
ways in which the curriculum 5 Identify directions for change with reasoned
and the processes it supports arguments for change and show how they will be
can be evaluated. implemented and evaluate these changes.

5 reflect on, evidence and Self-and peer-assessed

evaluate their own teaching and learning activity that
learning in respect of simulates an
the assessment task and assessment process.
feedback they obtain from Not assessed,
students and identify how they
can improve their course from
the self-evaluation.

Standards reference points

1 Examples of completed portfolios
2 Products of simulated assessment exercise