JUSTICE AND CARE

Introduction to
Participatory Rural
Appraisal
Compiled by -
Abraham Dennyson, B. Tech, MBA

2016

[TYPE THE COMPANY ADDRESS]

Contents
Training Schedule ............................................................................................................. 3
Rapid Rural Appraisal ....................................................................................................... 5
Participatory Rural Appraisal ............................................................................................ 6
Drawbacks ........................................................................................................................ 6
Difference between Rapid Rural Appraisal ........................................................................ 7
Understanding Facilitation ................................................................................................ 9
Participatory tools ........................................................................................................... 11
Tool 1. Mapping the local area ................................................................................... 12
Tool 2. Village Transect ............................................................................................. 14
Tool 3. Venn diagram ................................................................................................ 16
Tool 4. Problem Tree ................................................................................................. 17
Tool 5. Community Time Line ................................................................................... 19
Tool 6. Seasonal calendar........................................................................................... 21
Tool 7. Daily Activity Clocks..................................................................................... 23
Tool 8. Semi structured Interview .............................................................................. 24
Tool 9. Focus Group Discussion ................................................................................ 25
Tool 10. Dreaming dreams ........................................................................................... 26
Purpose of Various Participatory Tools ........................................................................... 27
How to Plan .................................................................................................................... 28
Plan ................................................................................................................................. 28
Prepare ............................................................................................................................ 28
Implement ....................................................................................................................... 28
Document and Analyze ................................................................................................... 28
Verify and Report............................................................................................................ 29
References: ..................................................................................................................... 29

Introduction to PRA Page 2

Training Schedule

Date
13 Jan (WED) 14 Jan (THU) 15 Jan (FRI)
Time
Welcome/
Introduction
Field exercise
0900 - (Rouque) Review
– reporting in
1000 Ground rules/ Pre PRA Tools 3
groups
Test (Dennyson)

Field exercise
1000 - Participatory
PRA Tools 4 – reporting in
1130 Techniques
groups

1130 –
Facilitation Skills Lunch PRA Tools 5
1300

1300 –
Lunch Lunch
1430

1430 – Field exercise Purpose of

PRA Tools 1
1600 in groups Various Tools

How to Plan
1600 –
PRA Tools 2 Feedback –
1730
post test
Participatory Techniques

Introduction to PRA Page 4

Rapid Rural Appraisal
Rapid Rural Appraisal consists of a series of techniques for "quick and dirty" research that
are claimed to generate results of less apparent precision, but greater evidential value, than
classic quantitative survey techniques. The method does not need to be exclusively rural nor
rapid, but it is economical of the researcher's time. It is essentially extractive as a process: the
agenda is still that of the outside researcher.

RRA (and analogs) emerged in the 1970s as a more efficient and cost-effective way of
learning by outsiders, particularly about agricultural systems, than was possible by large-
scale social surveys or brief rural visits by urban professionals. It drew on many of the
insights of field social anthropology of the 1930s-1950s, emphasized the importance and
relevance of situational local knowledge, and the importance of getting the big things broadly
right rather than achieving spurious statistical accuracy. It developed a style of listening
research, and a creative combination of iterative methods and verification, including
"triangulation" of data from different sources - using two different methods to view the same
information. It was usually conducted by a multi-disciplinary team, and its chief techniques
included:

• Review of secondary sources, including aerial photos, even brief aerial observation
• Direct observation, foot transects, familiarization, participation in activities
• Interviews with key informants, group interviews, workshops
• Mapping, diagramming
• Biographies, local histories, case studies
• Ranking and scoring
• Time lines
• Short simple questionnaires, towards end of process
• Rapid report writing in the field.

Drawbacks

The range of techniques can be effective, but it remains fundamentally an extractive,

externally-driven process. Many researchers who use standard RRA methods claim that they
are using PRA, when the "participation" is restricted to provision of information to the
researcher by the community. The simple test is what is the value added and who owns the
product. If the community draws a map because you ask them to, it's RRA. If they realize that
the map belongs to them, and want to keep it for their own use, then it's PRA.
Participatory Rural Appraisal
Emerging in the 1980s, PRA "proper" builds on RRA but goes much further. To RRA it
adds some more radical activist perspectives, deriving principally from South Asia. Its
five central additional concepts are:

• Empowerment. Knowledge is power. Knowledge arises from the process and results
of the research that, through participation, come to be shared with and owned by local
people. Thus the professional monopoly of information, used for planning and
management decisions, is broken. New local confidence is generated, or reinforced,
regarding the validity of their knowledge. "External" knowledge can be locally
assimilated.
• Respect. The PRA process transforms the researchers into learners and listeners,
respecting local intellectual and analytical capabilities. Researchers have to learn a
new "style". Researchers must avoid at all costs an attitude of patronizing surprise that
local people are so clever they can make their own bar charts etc. The "ooh-aah"
school of PRA works against its own principles of empowerment and indicates
shallow naivete on the part of the researcher. A good rule of thumb is that when you
can really understand the local jokes, poetry and songs, then you may feel you are
starting to understand the people's culture.
• Localization. The extensive and creative use of local materials and representations
encourages visual sharing and avoids imposing external representational conventions.
• Enjoyment. PRA, well done, is, and should be, fun. The emphasis is no longer on
"rapid" but on the process.
• Inclusiveness. Enhanced sensitivity, through attention to process; include marginal
and vulnerable groups, women, children, aged, and destitute.

Drawbacks

PRA need not be rural, and sometimes is not even participatory, and is frequently used as a
trendy label for standard RRA techniques. Despite its limitations, the concentrated power of
formalization of community knowledge through participatory techniques can generate an
impressive amount of information in a relatively short space of time, leaving time for more
selective structured formal surveys where they are necessary and of value. PRA also brings
in risks of:

• "Hijacking". When this occurs, the PRA agenda is externally driven, and used to
create legitimacy for projects, agencies and NGOs.
• Formalism. The "PRA hit team" arrives in a local community to "do a PRA". This
abrupt and exploitative approach is all too common in project-based PRAs where
there is a deadline to meet, or in scheduled training courses.
• Disappointment. Local expectations can easily be raised. If nothing tangible
emerges, local communities may come to see the process as a transient external
development phenomenon. Threats. The empowerment implications of PRA, and the
power of its social analysis, can create threats to local vested interests.

Introduction to PRA Page 6

Difference between Rapid Rural Appraisal
A Comparison of RRA and PRA
RRA PRA

Purpose Inform project design Capacity building for improved

gather baseline information decision making at community
monitor and evaluate level, situational analysis,
planning and monitoring by
community

Team Multi-disciplinary team of Team composed of villagers,

PROJECT staff and sometimes facilitated by
specialists PROJECT staff person, that
works with larger community
Communities where project
activities will take place
Sites Limited number of Ongoing throughout the life of
representative sites project.

Time Period Discrete studies usually Usually begins with training and
lasting 5-7 days initial situational analysis leading
to Community Action Plan
Tools and The range of tools and The range of tools and techniques
Techniques techniques presented below presented below (and others as
(and others as appropriate) appropriate)
Documentation Comprehensive well written Village Log Book with notes of
report that captures the principal findings, activities, and
depth and complexity of Community Action Plan
information obtained in the

Introduction to PRA Page 7

 Uses of RRA
I. Pre-project

RRAs are particularly useful in gathering information that will help agencies to orient
their programs. By conducting several RRAs in an area that is new to the agency, they
will get a sense of the range of issues that need to be addressed, and be better informed
on the context (social, economic, political, environmental, etc.) in which the projects
will intervene.
II. Project Design

RRAs are essential in the design phase to ensuring that the project is appropriate to the
realities in the area where it will be working. There is ample experience now to
suggest that standardized, off the shelf projects are of limited effectiveness. The more
that projects can be customized to the peculiar circumstances where they will
intervene, the greater their chance of success.
III. Early project intervention

RRAs early in the project can help the project further refine its objectives and
activities. If RRAs have not been done in the project design phase, these studies will
be essential to correcting any design flaws. In some cases, these RRAs will logically
lead into PRAs that draw the communities more deeply into the planning process.
IV. Mid-project

As the project gets underway, the staff may choose a select number of communities in
which to do regular RRA studies to monitor implementation, and to assess the
effectiveness of the approach. This will enable corrections to be made as problems are
identified. RRA is also a very useful method to use in mid-term evaluations of project
activities in selected sites.
V. End of project

The end of project evaluation will almost certainly wish to include an RRA assessment
of strengths and weaknesses. This evaluation will look at who was affected by the
project and the impact on those who participated...as well as those who did not.

Uses of PRA
As noted above, PRA is not really about discrete studies in the way that RRA is.
Instead, it offers an approach to project planning and implementation that integrally
involves the community throughout the length of the process. Hence, the PRA process
will involve the community, through all the stages outlined above. The village will
first use PRA to assess their needs and to customize the project interventions to their
priority concerns and the peculiar circumstances of their community. As the project
advances, they will monitor their own progress and engage in rolling planning in
which new activities and strategies are planned as previous ones take off. Over the
course of this process, we expect that communities will build their skills in analysis
and planning so that there will be sustained benefits that outlive the project’s
interventions.

Introduction to PRA Page 8

Understanding Facilitation
Facilitation
Facilitation skills are essential for anyone seeking to guide a group of people through a
process of learning or change in a way that encourages all members of the group to
participate. Each person has a unique viewpoint and valuable knowledge to share.
Without their contribution, the group’s ability to understand or respond to a situation is
reduced. The facilitator’s role is to draw out knowledge and ideas from different
members of a group. They can help them learn from each other and think and act
together. Facilitation is about empowering others. It involves letting go of control over
the outcome of a process and giving that responsibility to the group

Difference between teaching and facilitation

Differences between school teaching and facilitation
SCHOOL TEACHING FACILITATION
Teacher starts from their own knowledge Facilitator starts from the knowledge of the
group
Teacher follows a pre-set curriculum Facilitator addresses issues identified by the
group or their community and adapts new
ideas to the needs and culture of the group
Teacher presents new information from the Facilitator uses practical, participatory
front methods, eg: group discussion and activities
in which all members of the group participate
Information flows in just one direction, from Information flows in many different
teacher to students directions between the facilitator and
individual group members – a genuine
exchange of ideas
Teacher brings extensive knowledge of the Facilitator draws out and builds on the
subject knowledge of the group, and knows where to
find further information on the subject
Teacher is concerned with students Facilitator encourages and values different
understanding the right answer views
Teacher works for the community and may Facilitator works with the community and
come from outside the community may c come from within the community
Teacher has a formal relationship with the Facilitator is considered as an equal, and has
students, based on their status as a teacher relationships based on trust, respect and a
desire to serve

(Source; Facilitation skills workbook, by Sophie Clarke, Rachel Blackman and Isabel
Carter)

Stages of facilitation for capacity building

Facilitator cannot immediately acquire all competencies required for this exercise. He/
She has to go through five stages of facilitation development (Gubbles and Koss 2000)
He She will be able lead the PRA team once the final stage of facilitation is reached. The

Introduction to PRA Page 9

various stages facilitation that require different types of support are Embryonic,
Emerging, Growing, well developed and Mature (see below)

(Source: Participatory Rural Appraisal: Principles, Methods and Application, By N

Narayanasamy)

Introduction to PRA Page 10

Participatory tools
 Tool 1. Mapping the local area
It also sometimes called social mapping, resource mapping depending on the purpose of
the activity. People are asked to draw a map of their community. This could include
natural resources, water sources, healthcare services, key people in the community etc.
Different groups of people may look at their community in different ways. It is useful to
ask key groups, such as women, men, young people, older people, people with
disabilities, to draw separate maps and then compare them.
Local people already know more than any outsider about their community and the people
living there. Many people assume they know everything about their local area, but there is
always more to learn and understand before making new plans.
Take plenty of time to help people in the ‘community’ to tell their story together.
One very effective way of doing this is to draw maps, either using clear ground with
sticks, leaves and stones, or if available, large sheets of paper and pens.
Encourage small groups to draw different maps to show:
- the natural and physical resources in the area (hills, forests, roads and rivers, for
example)
- where people live, noting important people and organisations
- how the area looked 50 or 20 years ago (only for older people).
It is best if groups of different age and gender work separately as sometimes the different
results are very revealing. For example, the young people’s map may show very different
information from that of older women. Allow each group to explain their map fully.
Encourage questions and discussions.

Discussion
1. Discuss what information should be included in a map showing important
organisations. For example, the map could include credit unions, NGOs, food
processing mills and both large and small producers.
2. Who did most of the drawing and most of the talking in each group? Did everyone
have the opportunity to participate? If not, how could shy or quiet people be
encouraged to draw and share their knowledge?
3. Did people have plenty of time to complete their maps? Was there enough time for
community members to look to look at the various maps and listen to each group
explaining their map fully? Encourage questions and discussions.
4. What differences are there between the maps produced by different groups? Why are
there differences? How does the information from each map help to make a more
complete picture of the community? Do the differences tell us something about our
community?
5. How can the information on the maps be kept safe for future reference? Can maps
drawn on the ground be copied onto paper? Who should look after the maps and
make them available if needed?

Types of mapping include the following:

• wealth mapping
• resource mapping • land use mapping
• historical mapping • Demographic mapping.
• social mapping
• health mapping

Advantages
- Allow members of the community to learn about the intervention and to discuss
issues
- Can raise awareness and credibility
- Is inexpensive
- Can increase evaluator’s knowledge of important issues

Challenges
- May not accurately represent the community, because of issues of gender and
power

Introduction to PRA Page 13

 Tool 2. Village Transect
Walking through an area that is being studied is very diff erent from look- ing at an aerial
image. Instead of using a camera, a walker uses his or her observation skills to develop an
understanding of the area. Following dirt paths that
community members take can reveal why women
fetch water only once a day or switch to different Transect walk: Walk taken in
paths when the rains begin. A walk may lead to an order to observe a community’s
understanding of social divisions in the community, people, surroundings, and
such as power and caste divisions. It may also help resources
identify spatial organization, architectural styles, use
of space, environmental sanitation, overuse or underuse of facilities, and activities around
water and sanitation facilities (Narayan 1996)
A transect walk is a type of walk an evaluator might take around a community in order to
obtain a representative observation of its people, surroundings, and resources. Transect
walks are a kind of spatial data-gathering tool. A transect walk can take as little as an
hour or as long as a day.
The transect walk is planned by drawing a “transect line” through a map of a community.
The line should go through, or transect, all zones of the community in order to provide a
representative view of the community.

Introduction to PRA Page 14

The evaluator, accompanied by several community members, walks along the area
represented by the transect line on the map. He or she talks to the community members
while observing conditions, people, problems, and opportunities. Transect walks provide
an evaluator with a “big picture” view of the community. They help identify issues that
need further investigation.

The following are examples of aspects of a community that can be observed during a
transect walk: (please fill it up...)

(Source: THE ROAD RESULTS: Designing and Conducting Effective Development

Evaluations by Linda G. Morra Imas and Ray C. Rist)

Introduction to PRA Page 15

 Tool 3. Venn diagram
Venn diagram is used to indentify person or organizations that are involved in and are
important for a community.

• Identify groups and institutions operating in the community and to show how they
interact with each other
• To show the degree of their cooperation and involvement in development
programs.
• To discover their importance or influence on decision making in the community.
Venn diagrams have been used within PRA in institutional context to discuss:

- Examination of the role and significance of various institutions

- Levels of communication between organizations
- Examination of the role of projects and their intervention
- Improving missing links between existing organizations,
- Potential for working through existing organizations, which ones and with which
links.
- Potential roles for new organization
- Formal and non-formal groups and their levels of cooperation
- Communities perceptions of the institutions

Following intuitions can be examined through Venn diagram (please fill it up)

Introduction to PRA Page 16

 Tool 4. Problem Tree
The problem tree is the variation of cause and effect diagram. The problem tree or the
problem tree analysis identifies the negative aspects of an existing situation and establish
the cause and effect relationship between the problems that prevails

This is important in planning a community engagement or behaviour change project as it

establishes the context in which a project is to occur. Understanding the context helps reveal
the complexity of life and this is essential in planning a successful change project.

A problem tree involves writing causes in a negative form (eg. lack of knowledge, not
enough money etc). Reversing the problem tree, by replacing negative statements with
positive ones, creates a solution tree. A solution tree identifies means-end relationships as
opposed to cause-effects. This provides an overview of the range of projects or interventions
that need to occur to solve the core problem.

A problem tree analysis:

• Helps the planning of a project

• Provides a guide as to the complexity of a problem by identifying the multiple causes
• Identifies particular lines of intervention and other factors that may need to be tackled
with complementary projects
• Provides an outline of the project plan, including the activities that need to be
undertaken, the goal and the outcomes of the project.

Introduction to PRA Page 17

 Completre the effect part in the diagram below ...

Introduction to PRA Page 18

 Tool 5. Community Time Line
All change builds on what has gone before. It is helpful for a community to reflect on the
changes that have already occurred and what has been learned from them. One very
useful way to help discussion about this is to produce a ‘community timeline’.
A timeline is a way of looking back and recording how things were and how people have
felt over time. Sometimes this is called a ‘line of well-being’. Agree on a start date –
usually a particular time within the memory of most people present, maybe around 10
years ago. Together, remind each other of important events – a time of drought, or the
opening of the school or clinic. How was life at that time for people here? Give an
example of how to carry out the exercise. As with the maps, work in small groups so that
each group draws a timeline. Then discuss each timeline to enable people to get a
complete picture of the recent history of their community.

Discussion
Discuss the meaning of the different levels of well-being. ‘Very good’ measures a time
when people feel positive, have money for food and essentials or are excited about the
future. ‘OK’ means that life is generally all right – not too good but not too bad. ‘Very
bad’ means that people find it very difficult to manage, have little or no money and little
hope for the future. In between these three measures are a wide range of levels.
Discuss whether to work in small mixed groups or to form groups according to age and
gender.

Introduction to PRA Page 19

Discuss whether to encourage people to let their timeline finish at today’s date or a date in
the future. Do people want to consider how they feel about the future?
Did people have enough time to finish? How similar were the different timelines? Were
there many differences? What can be learned from each of these?
How can this information be kept safe to look at in the future? Can timelines drawn on
the ground be copied onto paper? Who should look after the timelines?
How can we hold on to what we are learning together?

Introduction to PRA Page 20

 Tool 6. Seasonal calendar
At certain times of the year, there may be particular pressures or struggles that people
face. Sometimes, ways to reduce these pressures may develop through discussion, helping
community members to plan better for the future.
One simple way of measuring these pressures is to produce a seasonal calendar. Draw a
simple chart showing the months of the year.
Working in small groups, think about different issues throughout the year. For example:

• household income
• farm labour
• health
• water supplies.
Give each group 48 beans or small stones. Look at each issue in turn and distribute the
beans appropriately for each month of the year. An average month would have four
beans. If, for example, income or health is a real concern one month, put many more than
four beans. In months when health or income isgood, put less than four, even none.
Encourage plenty of discussion. When each calendar is finished, come together to discuss
and learn from each group.

Seasonal calendar can be used to study following: (please fill it up...)

Introduction to PRA Page 21

Discussion
Who will record what each group has found and note down any important comments or
information? How will the information be kept safe?
How does household income change throughout the year? When do households have
most income? When do households tend to have less income? Is there any way of
reducing the problems we face during particular seasons?
How does farm labour change throughout the year? When do households need to do most
farm work? How do households cope? When are the less busy times of the year? Is there
anything that could be done during these times to make life easier during the very busy
times? How does it vary for different groups in the community?
Are there particular health concerns at different times during the year? What might cause
these problems? How do households cope with these health issues? Is there anything
that could be done to improve health at these times? How does it vary for different groups
in the community?
Are there links between different issues? For example, people may be in poor health
when labour is most needed because they are hungry.
What other important issues could be looked at in this way?

Introduction to PRA Page 22

 Tool 7. Daily Activity Clocks
Daily Activity Clocks illustrate all of the different kinds of activities carried out in one
day. They are particularly useful for looking at relative work-loads between different
groups in the community. Comparisons between clocks show who works the longest
hours, who concentrates on a few activities and who does a number of tasks in a day, and
who has the most leisure time and sleep.
Daily Activity Clocks is employed to study the labour pattern and other actives. It helps
to know the various type of work done by individual or group in a day and distribution of
workload throughout the day. It is temporal analysis on daily basis. It also helps in
comparing the daily schedule of different individuals or groups.
Daily Activity Clocks helps to understand

• Who does how much work (Gender analysis a) productive work b) reproductive
work c)community work)
• Who takes how much of rest and leisure
• Who participates in different social activities
• What promotes and hinder men and women to participate in different activities
1. Productive role - work that brings in money
2. Reproductive role - work around the house, food and family
3. Community role - organising social events and services in the community

a) Community managing - doing the work to make the events and services succeed
b) Community politics - playing a leadership role and making the decisions

Introduction to PRA Page 23

 Tool 8. Semi structured Interview
Interviews are broadly classified into a) structured or directive interviews, b)semi
structured interviews, c) unstructured
Structured Semi Structured Unstructured
• Useful when research • Useful where some • Useful to help the
questions are very precise quantitative and some research focus or explore
and qualified answers are qualitative information is new or sensitive topics in
needed needed depth
• Questions must be asked • Questions may be asked • More like a conversation,
• Most questions have in different ways but no standard questions,
preset answers to chose some questions can be just topic areas
between standard • Follow it ask the
• Result easy to analyze • Questions can be left out respondents to establish
• Follows many of the and others added what is important to
same rules as • Include mix of open and discuss
questionnaire close ended questions • Avoid questions which
• Analysis fairly straight can have responses as
forward simple ‘Yes’ or ‘No’
• Analysis require time and
skill

Introduction to PRA Page 24

 Tool 9. Focus Group Discussion
Focus group interview is basically group interviews. A moderator guides the interview
while a small group discusses the topics that interview raises. The basic tenet of focus
groups discussion is listening and learning.

Introduction to PRA Page 25

 Tool 10. Dreaming dreams
Preparing and discussing information gathered from timelines, mapping and role-plays
will highlight the key issues facing the community. Now it is time to decide on the way
ahead. Remind people of all they have learned and achieved so far. Do we want things to
continue as they are? If people are not satisfied, ask them to consider the future and to
dream dreams.
_ Encourage people to spend time dreaming about how they would like their community
to be in 10 years time, then 20 or even 30 years time. This could be in silence or in small
group discussion. Imagine how it will look, how life will be and what will be happening.
Gather together all these thoughts and write them down on a chart to keep.
_ Now return to the present day. Together, list on a chart the problems that are preventing
these dreams being achieved. Let each person vote once by show of hands for the
problem they think most serious. Those with the highest scores will be the priorities for
action. But remember, we also need to seek God’s priorities too! Gain agreement on one
priority that is achievable within a couple of years. Later another priority can be tackled.

Discussion
_ Which dreams are easy to bring about? Which may seem completely unrealistic? Discuss
which dreams could be practically achieved within our local area and which seem totally out
of reach.

_ How can we seek God’s priorities and values for our community and for our lives?

_ Prepare a chart to record all the dreams and put this in a public place. Divide up those that
could be achieved within a few years from those that may take
20–30 years.

_ How can we make sure that the priority selected is something that can be achieved here?
Choosing an issue that is so big that local people will not see any change, will make us lose
enthusiasm. For example, clean water supplies may be a priority, but if this needs a lot of
money for drilling wells, we should first choose another priority that we can achieve
ourselves without outside help.

_ Discuss whether people should vote by show of hands to indicate which problem is the
most serious. Will people be influenced too much by other people’s views? If so, consider
using beans to enable people to vote in secret

– placing the beans under the problems they think are most serious (with illustrations for
those who can’t read).

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Purpose of Various Participatory Tools
Please fill it up…

Tools Uses

1. Mapping the
local area

2. Village
Transect

3. Venn diagram

4. Problem Tree

5. Community
Time Line

6. Seasonal
calendar

7. Semi structured
Interview

8. Focus Group
Discussion

9. Dreaming
dreams

Introduction to PRA Page 27

How to Plan
Plan
1. Consult your team
2. Find time and resources
3. Inform and get dates and time suitable from the community
4. Select your team (facilitators, documentation, volunteers)

WHEN IMMEDIATE WEEKEND DEADLINE

WHAT

HOW

WHO

Prepare
1. Decide on the PRA tools you are going to employ
2. Prepare your team (Rehearse among yourself)
3. Prepare materials required ( Chart paper, Marker pen, Charcoal, pebbles, beans
etc)
4. Make sure you have women workers/ volunteers in your team (gender balance)

Implement
1. Involved all sections of people specially women, children and people with
disability. Divide in to groups so that they have freedom to express
2. PRA attracts large crowd, be prepared to handle large crowds. Certain tools
require small groups make sure you have multiple facilitators and can easily
divide into small groups.
3. Be flexible with time space and approach
4. Make sure person responsible is documenting the process, findings and learning.

Document and Analyze

1. Summarize the information collected into category of analysis
2. Prepare preliminary report

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Verify and Report
Finalise the report only after triangulate information collected by validating data through
cross verification from two or more sources.
1. Collect secondary data from various Government sources Panchayat, block,
diarists and state
2. Collect data from research institute, NGOs, Web etc.

References:
Participatory Rural Appraisal: Principles, Methods and Application, By N Narayanasamy
Facilitation skills workbook, by Sophie Clarke, Rachel Blackman and Isabel Carter
Mobilising the community A PILLARS Guide by Isabel Carter
THE ROAD RESULTS: Designing and Conducting Effective Development Evaluations
by Linda G. Morra Imas and Ray C. Rist
RRA and PRA A Manual for CRS Field Workers and Partners by Karen Schoonmaker
Freudenberger
Learning form our partners –EHA Manual for using participatory tools –compiled by
Thomas John

Introduction to PRA Page 29