Block diagram of digital computer

Input units
1) A device used to enter information into a computer or other data processing device
2) Input device are used to feed data into the computer
3) Input device are used to enter the command, program, image as well as the device which are
used tom control various operation related to game and graphics
4) Digital computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem so they
need to input data and instructions. Input can be entered from a keyboard, a mouse pointing
device, a USB stick and the various types of photo storage cards used by digital cameras.
Input can also be downloaded from the Internet via a communications device.
All input peripheral devices perform the following functions:
Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.
Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
Supply that converted data to the computer system for further processing.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

1. The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit.
2. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system.
3. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs
different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations.
The CPU is like brain performs the following functions:
1 It performs all calculations.
2 It takes all decisions.
3 It controls all units of the computer.
Functional Units of a Computer System
In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the task
between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its
operation. They are
1) Arithmetic logical unit
2) Control unit.
3) Storage Unit (Memory)
Arithmetic Logical Unit
1. After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual
processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit.
2. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required.
3. After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting
stored.

Control Unit (CU)

1. The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing
that things are done in proper fashion.
2. Control Unit is responsible for coordinating various operations.
3. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are
executed.
4. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the
instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them.
5. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously.

Storage Units
The storage units of a digital computer hold data and instructions that have been entered through the
input units before and whilst they are being processed. They preserve the intermediate and final
results before they are sent to the output devices. They also save the data for the later use. The
various storage devices of a computer system are divided into two categories:

1. Primary Storage: Random Access Memory. (RAM)

1. Tthis stores and delivers data very fast.
2. RAM is generally used to hold the program being currently executed in the
computer, the data being received from the input unit and the intermediate and final
results of the program.
3. RAM memory is temporary in nature: the data is lost when the computer is switched
off.
4. In order to store the data permanently, the data has to be transferred to the secondary
memory
5. Size of main memory is small. Cost is high.

2. Secondary Storage.

1. It stores several programs, documents, data bases etc. The programs that you run on
the
2. Computer are first transferred to the primary memory before it is actually run.
Whenever the
3. results are saved, again they get stored in the secondary memory. The secondary
memory is slower and cheaper than the primary memory.
3.. Speed of this memory is slow. But we can use a vest amount of secondary memory to story
long size data.
5. Cost of Secondary memory is low.
6. Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.

Output Units

1) A device used to display information after processing

2) Output device to display final result
3) There are different kinf of Output device
a) Monitor (Video Display Unit)
1. Cathode Ray Tube CRT
2. TFT
b) Printer
Printer can be divided
4) The utput units of a computer provide the information and results of an arithmetical
computation – or some other kind of data processing, such as a search – to the outside world.
Commonly used output units are printers and visual display units (VDUs), also known simply
as “screens”. Output data can also be sent to USB sticks and other types of data storage cards,
such as those used by digital cameras. Output can also be uploaded to the Internet via a
communications device.
All output peripheral devices perform the following functions:
• Accept output data and instructions from the computer.
• Convert it to a form that the outside world can understand.
• Supply that converted data to the outside world.

Primary Storage:
Any storage unit of a computer is ranked according to the following criteria:
1. Access Time: This is the time required to locate and retrieve stored data from the storage unit in
response to a program instruction. A fast access time is preferred.
2. Storage capacity: It is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. A large capacity
is desired.
3. Cost per bit of storage: Main goal is to minimize the cost of per bit storage.

Type of primary Storage:

1. RAM 2.ROM

1. RAM:
a) Stands for Random access Memory.
b) It stores temporary data into memory.
c) When the power supply is switched off, the information stored inside the RAM is Lost.
d) It stores essential data required to run programs, such as information and calculation.
e) It is also referred to as read/write memory because information can be read from a RAM
chip and also be written into it.
f) There are two type of RAM
1. S-RAM (Static RAM)
a Made by flip-flops , an electronic device ,which stores a bit as a voltage.
B Stores temporary data.
c. Costly-cost of per bit storage is high
d High speed

2. D-RAM (Dynamic RAM)

a. Made by transistor
b. Stores temporary data.
c. Low cost – cost of per bit storage is low
d. High speed

2. ROM:
a) Stands for Red only memory
b) typically used in computers to permanently hold data
c) The information from the memory can only be read and it is not possible to write fresh
information into it
d) It is supplied by the computer manufacturer and user can not modify the program stored
inside the ROM.
e) When the power supply is switched off, the information stored inside the RAM is Lost.
f) Read Only Memory is constructed from “hard-wire logic,” in a similar way to the processor,
meaning that it cannot be reprogrammed or changed. This is because it is designed to
perform a specific function, and does not need to be altered.
g) Example of ROM is a commercial CD purchased from a store; the manufacturers do not
want you to alter what is stored on the disk.
h) Type of ROM

a. Programmable Read only memory (PROM): User can write programs at one time and
read it many times. Once the chip has been programmed the recorded information cannot be
changed.

b. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): Program can be read, erase and
reprogrammed. This type of ROM can only be reprogrammed using a special type of ultra-
violet light, and therefore is only reprogrammed by manufacturers.

c. Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM): EEPROM is

the most flexible type of ROM because it can be reprogrammed using software.
EEPROM is becoming the standard type of ROM used in consumer
motherboards. EEPROM allows the easy “flashing” of motherboard memory when
problems arise or updates are released.

Cache Memory
1. Cache (pronounced cash) memory is extremely fast memory that is built into a
computer’s central processing unit (CPU), or located next to it on a separate chip.
2. The CPU uses cache memory to store instructions that are repeatedly required to run
programs, improving overall system speed. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks
first in the cache memory.
Registers
1. Register is a special- purpose memory.CPU uses these registers to handle the process of
execution effectively and efficiently.
2. They are a part of the central processing unit but cannot be considered as a part of main
memory.
3. They can hold only one piece of data at a time.
4. Registers receive the information, hold it temporarily and pass it to other as directed by the
control unit.
5. The number of registers varies from computer to computer, each one designed to perform a
specific function. Registers have a specific storage capacity normally 14 registers are
present in a microcomputer. The most commonly used registers are:
1. Accumulator: stores the result of the last processing step of the ALU.
2. Instruction register: holds the instruction while it is being executed.
3. Address register: holds the location of the next piece of data.
4. Program counter: holds the address of the next instruction to e executed.
5. Input/output register: communicates with the input/output devices.

1. All data must be represented in a register before it can be processed

2. For example, if two numbers are to be multiplied, both numbers must be in registers, and the
result is also placed in a register. (The register can contain the address of a memory location
where data is stored rather than the actual data itself.)
3. The number of registers that a CPU has and the size of each (number of bits) help determine
the power and speed of a CPU. For example a 32-bit CPU is one in which each register is 32
bits wide. Therefore, each CPU instruction can manipulate 32 bits of data.
Secondary memory

1. Secondary memory (or secondary storage) is the slowest and cheapest form of memory. It
cannot be processed directly by the CPU. It must first be copied into primary storage (also
known as RAM ).
2. Secondary memory devices include magnetic disks like hard drives and floppy
disks ; optical disks such as CDs and CDROMs ; and magnetic tapes, which were the first
forms of secondary memory.

Parts of computer Hardware and Software

There are two type of computer HARDWARE and SOFRWARE
HARDWARE
a) All those parts of a computer which can be seen and touched are known are hardware
b) It si that tha part of computer which visible to you like Monitor, Keyboard, Printer,
Mouse etc.
c) The physical component of a computer is called hardware. Thus the input, storage,
processing, and output devices are hardware. Ex:- monitor, keyboard, mouse etc..
SOFTWARE
a) It is that tha part of a computer which you can not seen but is extremely important in
a working of a computer
b) It is set of computer program procedure, and associated documentioan related to the
affective operation of a computer system
c) Computer cannot do anything on its own. It must be instructed to do the job. Hence it
is necessary to specify a sequence of instructions that a computer must perform to
solve the problem.
A sequence of instruction given to a computer to perform a particular task is called a
program. And set of programs written for a computer is called software.
Ex: MS office, c, c++, java etc.

Rules of software in computer

A set of instruction that perform a particular task is called the program or software program
Catagories of the software
The software are classified into the following
a) System software
b) Application software
c) Utilities
 d) Package

System software
1) Syatem software are program which help in effective operation of the computer system
and improve its performance utilization
2) A set of one ro more program designed to the control the operation of a computer
system. They are general program written to assists human in the use of computer
system and for making the operation of the computer system more efficient.
3) System software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operation of a
computer system.
Systems software includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the
computer to function. For example Operating System, compiler, assembler, utilities etc

Application software
1) A application software is used to particaulr operation task
2) Application software is a set of one or more programs designed to carry out operations
for specific applications.
Or we can say Applications software includes programs that do real work
for users.
For example, word processors, spreadsheets, and database management
systems.

Operating System:
2. An Operating System (O.S.) is a set of programs that is used to manage the various resource
and overall operations of a computer installation.
3. Its prime objective is to improve the performance and efficiency of a computer system and
increase facility.
4. OS is responsible for the smooth and efficient operation of the entire computer system.
5. It makes the computer system user friendly.
6. It is considered the backbone of a computer, managing both software and hardware
resources.
7. An O.S. provides an environment for the execution of the program.
8. It works as a layer between hardware and application program.

User
Application Program
Operating System
Hardware
Functions of Operating System:
1. Process Management :
2. Memory Management :
3. Input / Output Management:
4. File Management :
5. Network Management :
6. Secondary storage management
7. Protection and security management
8. User interface
9. Communication Management
10. Interpretation of command and instructions.
Services of Operating System:
O.s. provides services for the convenience of the programmer, to make the programming task
easier. Some of these services are .
1. Program execution services
2. I/O operation services
3. File System services
4. Communication services
5. Error Detection services
6. Protection services
7. Accounting Services

Classification of Operating System:

1. Single Processing System:

1. It has a single processor

2. Only a single user can interact and runs a single program at a time.
3. However the CPU is not utilized to its full potential, because it sits idle for most of
the time.
4. Ex:-> MS DOS.

2. Multiprogramming Operating System-

1. Multiprogramming OS allows the execution of two or more different and

independent programs by the same computer.
2. It is used to increase the system utilization and efficiency.

3. It reduces the CPU ideal time.

3. Multiprocessing Operating System–

1. Multiprocessing OS refers to a computer system’s ability to support and utilizing

more than one computer processor at a time.
2. Multiprocessing is used to describe interconnected computers with two or more
independent CPUs that have the ability to simultaneously execute several programs.
 3. A multiprocessing operating system allows a program to run on more than one
central processing unit (CPU) at a time

4. Ex: Linux , Windows 2000

4. Multitasking Operating System–

1. An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to run at
the same time.
2. Multitasking is the ability to execute more than one task at the same time.
3. In Multitasking only one CPU is involved, but it switches from one program to
another so quickly that it gives the appearance of executing all the programs at the
same time.
4. Ex: Linux , Windows 2000

5. Multithreading Operating System–

1. Multithreading Operating systems allows different parts of a single program to run
concurrently.
2. The ability of an OS to execute different parts of program, called threads,
simultaneously without interfering with each other.
3. Ex: Linux , Windows 2000

6. Real-Time Operating System-

1. There are many applications that require an immediate response from the computer.
2. Real time means immediate response from the computer.
3. Real-time operating systems are designed to allow computers to process and respond
to input immediately.
4. Usually, general-purpose operating systems, such as disk operating system (DOS),
are not considered real time, as they may require seconds or minutes to respond to
input.
5. Real-time operating systems are typically used when computers must react to the
consistent input of information without delay.
6. Used in stock market quotation, searching a criminal data file for a possible suspect
may all be actions that need to be done without delay.

7. Distributed System:
1. A recent trend in computer system is to distribute computation among several
processors. In contrast to tightly coupled system the processors do not share memory
or a clock. Instead each processor has its own memory and clock.
2. The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines
such as high speed buses or telephone lines.
3. These systems are usually referred to as distributed system or loosely coupled
 system.
4. The processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function.
5. They may include small micro processors, work stations, mini computers and large
general purpose computer systems.
6. These processors are referred to by a number of different names, such as sites, nodes,
computers, and so on depending on the context in which they mentioned.
7. There are variety of reasons for building distributed system, the major ones being:
o Resource Sharing.
o Computation Speedup.
o Reliability and
o Communication.

Generations of Computer:
First Generation (1945-1955)
1. In this generation Vacuum tubes were used to design the computer
2. Too bulky in size
3. Not portable
4. Limited commercial used
5. Large amount of heat generated
6. Air conditioning required
7. High Electricity Consumption
8. Very costly
9. Perform computations in milliseconds
10. Prone to Frequent hardware failures , so constant maintenance required
11. Unreliable
Ex: UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).

Second Generation (1955 – 1964)

1. In this generation Transistor were used to design the computer
2. Smaller in size as compared to first generation computer
3. Better portability
4. Wider commercial used but costly
5. Less heat generated
6. Air conditioning required
7. Less prone to hardware failures
8. Frequent maintenance required
9. Perform computations in microseconds (able to reduce computational time from
millisecond to microseconds)
10. More reliable

Third Generation (1964 – 1975)

1. In this generation IC(integrated circuit) were used to design the computer
2. Smaller in size as compared to previous generation computers
3. Easily portable
 4. Widely used for various commercial applications all over the world
5. Less heat generated as compared to previous generation computers
6. maintenance cost is low because hardware failures are rare
7. Perform computations in nanoseconds (able to reduce computational time from
microseconds to nanoseconds)
8. More reliable as compared to previous generation computers
9. Less power required then previous generation computers
10. Air conditioning required in many cases

Fourth Generation (1975 Onwards)

1. In this generation microprocessors were used to design the computer
2. Uses LSI(large scale integration) and VLSI (very large scale integration) technique in
microprocessor
3. Small in size so easily portable
4. Minimal labour and cost involved at assembly stage
5. Very reliable
6. Heat generated is negligible
7. No Air conditioning required in most cases
8. Much faster than previous generation computers
9. Hardware failure is negligible so minimal maintenance required
10. Cheapest among all generation
Fifth Generation (yet to come)
Scientists are now at work on fifth generation computers.
They aim to bring us machines with genuine I.Q . The ability to reason logically and with real
knowledge of the world.
1. Used in parallel processing
2. Used superconductors
3. Used in speech recognition
4. Used in intelligent robots
5. Used in artificial intelligence