Chapter Six

Learning

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 What Is Learning?
• Adaptive process through which
experience modifies pre-existing behavior
and understanding.

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 Adaptation to a constant
stimulus is simple learning
Reponses to unchanging stimuli decreases
over time.
– Habituation is simplest form of learning.

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Habituation is an example of
Non-Associative Learning
• Learning results from the impact of
one particular stimulus.
– Not the result of learning to associate
one stimulus with another
– We learn to ignore repeated or
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 Another example of non-
associative learning
• Why do people engage in risky behavior?
• Solomon’s (1980) Opponent Process
Theory explains this – Based on disruption
and restoration of equilibrium. (like color
vision)
• Explains drug addiction, bungee jumping,
and maybe even self destructive
gangbanging behavior.
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 Solomon’s Opponent-Process
Theory
– New stimuli that cause extreme positive or negative
feeling cause opposite (opponent) feeling to occur
to restore equilibrium.
– If new stimulus is repeated the opponent feeling
happens faster and stronger, eventually
suppressing original stimulus.
– i.e. Drug addiction – over time addicts need more
drug to get the same effect (habituation), and
withdrawal gets worse over time too.
– i.e. Why do people skydive, ride rollercoasters?
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 Associative Learning
Most learning theories are based on
associations of one stimulus with another,
or associations between behavior and its
consequences.

Classical Conditioning
- Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson

Instrumental & Operant Conditioning

- Edward Thorndike, B.F. Skinner
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Ivan Pavlov - Classical
Conditioning

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Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
• Start with Unconditioned Stimulus UCS
– Causes an instinctive Unconditioned Response UCR
– For example, food causes salivation (drooling)
• Then PAIR the UCS with a Neutral Stimulus
– Presenting the UCS with Neutral Stimulus causes an
association to form. The more you do it, the stronger
the association.
– Ex., ring a bell when you present food…
– Eventually the bell ALONE will cause salivation
• The bell was neutral, but is now a Conditioned
Stimulus CS which causes salivation, the
Conditioned Response CR
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Example - Pavlovian (Classical)
Conditioning

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Classical Conditioning –
UCS, UCR, CS, CR

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 Apparatus for Measuring
Conditioned Responses

http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/pavlov/index.html
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Changes Over Time in the Strength
of a Conditioned Response:
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery

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Stimulus Generalization - Pavlov

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 Stimulus Discrimination
• Pavlov’s dogs didn’t respond to every
sound… just those similar to the on which
was conditioned.

• What if there were no limits to stimulus

generalization?

• Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to

differentiate among similar stimuli.
– Complementary (opposite) process to stimulus
generalization. 15
 Pavlov won a Nobel Prize for
figuring this out.

http://nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/pavlov/pavlov.html

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 Factors Affecting the Learning
of a Conditioned Response
• Timing
– Forward conditioning = CS then UCS
• Most effective (bell then food0
– Backward conditioning = UCS then CS
• Less effective (food then bell)
– Simultaneous conditioning = Same time
• Least effective (food and bell at the same time)
• Predictability (response criterion)
• Signal Strength (abs threshold, JND)
• Attention to Stimulus (attention)
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 Classical Conditioning
• Example
• Need a volunteer.

• UCS
• UCR
• NS
• CS
• CR
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 John B. Watson
• Showed that classical conditioning could be
used to condition emotions.
• Watson believed in “Nurture” not “Nature”
– People are shaped by their environment
• Famous experiment with Little Albert
– Neutral Stim. (NS) = white rat,other furry stuff
– Uncond. Stim (UCS) = Loud BANG!
– Uncond. Resp (UCR) = Crying
After Conditioning CS = white rat, CR = crying
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 John Watson showed that
emotions can be conditioned

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 More Factors Affecting the Learning
of a Conditioned Response
• Biopreparedness (BIOlogically PREPARED)
– Animals (including humans) are predisposed to
certain conditioning situations… perhaps genetic.
It is easy for us to learn certain associations.
– E.g. taste aversions, snakes vs. cars.

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More Factors Affecting the Learning
of a Conditioned Response
• Second-Order Conditioning
– When a conditioned stimulus (CS) begins to
act as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) for a
NEW CS
– Ex: Dr.’s waiting room (cs) and shot (ucs)–
waiting room could begin to act as ucs…
eventually magazines become cs.
– While adaptive, can cause problems.
are

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 Some Applications of Classical
Conditioning
• Can play role in the development of phobias.
(extreme fears that are not based on real danger
or fear reactions that aren’t appropriate to real
danger)
– Systematic desensitization as a treatment – to cause
extinction.
• Predator Control – taste aversion
• Predicting Alzheimer’s Disease – ability of
patients to be conditioned to blink (air puff = ucs,
light =cs) deteriorates.
• Other applications? 23
Instrumental and Operant
Conditioning:

Behavior is changed by its

consequences

Thorndike and Skinner

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 Edward L. Thorndike 1898
• Was studying animals’ intelligence and
ability to solve problems.
– Used a puzzle box.
• What were Thorndike’s cats learning?
– “Law of effect” – Consequences change
behavior.
– Described this kind of learning as instrumental
conditioning. – Organisms learn to do things
that have satisfying or pleasurable
consequences. Continue
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Figure 6.5: Thorndike’s Puzzle
Box

26 Return
 B. F. Skinner - Operant Cond.
• Extended and formalized many of
Thorndike’s ideas.
• Organisms learn responses by operating on
the environment.
– “Operant conditioning”
• Primary aim = analyze how behavior is
changed by its consequences.
• Does target behavior increase or decrease?

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Basic Parts of Operant Conditioning
• Operant – a response that has an effect on the
world.
• Reinforcer – a stimulus that increases the
probability that the behavior which preceded it
will occur again.
– Positive reinforcer – a pleasurable thing follows
behavior – ie: Mom gives kid candy for good
behavior in store (kid is being conditined)
– Negative reinforcer – an unpleasurable thing
STOPS following behavior. ie: Kid stops whining
when mom gives them candy in checkout line (mom
is being conditioned) 28
Figure 6.6: Positive and
Negative Reinforcement

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Escape and Avoidance: Two types
of negative reinforcement

Escape
Conditioning Avoidance Conditioning
Adapted from: The Psychology of Memory and Learning by Hintzman. © 1978 by W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.

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 IMPORTANT!!
• Negative reinforcement is NOT punishment.

• Negative reinforcement is the REMOVAL of

unpleasant stimulus when target behavior is
observed (Neg. Rein. increases behavior!!!!)

• Punishment is the introduction of an aversive

(unpleasant) stimulus or removal of a pleasant
stimulus as a consequence of behavior –
(Punishment decreases behavior!!!!!)
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Operant Conditioning Activity
• Finger snaps are like money in
your bank account.

•Positive reinforcement of
behavior approaching target
behavior.

•Shaping.
BF Skinner 1904-1990
Operant Conditioning

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 Forming and Strengthening
Operant Behavior
• Shaping – Process of reinforcing responses that
get closer and closer to the desired response.
• Primary Reinforcer – meets basic needs i.e food,
water.- Give dog a treat.
• Secondary Reinforcement
– Say “good dog” when you give the dog a treat…
eventually you won’t need so many treats. (money vs.
food/shelter…)
– Secondary reinforcers (or “conditioned reinforcers”)
– Greatly expands the power of operant conditioning.
– Depends on what people like… rock concert, opera?

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 Delay and Size of
Reinforcement
• Timing of Reinforcer – Usually the shorter
the delay between the target behavior and
reinforcement, the more effective.
• Size of Reinforcer – Usually the larger the
reinforcer, the more effective (10 bucks for
each right answer in class?)

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 Operant Schedules of
Reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement schedule: give
reinforcer for every instance of target behavior.
– works well, but not practical in many
situations.

• Partial or intermittent reinforcement

schedule: give reinforcers, but NOT for every
instance of target behavior – also works well
and is more practical.
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 Partial / Intermittent Schedules
– Fixed Ratio (FR) – every 10th response = FR10

– Variable Ratio (VR) – not as predictable, the ratio

varies, but can be described as the average VR
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– Fixed Interval (FI) – Reinforces the first response

and then every fixed amount of time later as long
as there is a response. (many jobs pay this way)

– Variable Interval (VI) – Random reinforcements

after some average interval has passed… avid
binder check about every 2 weeks. 37
 Intermittent Reinforcement
Schedules and examples
Based on Number of Based on Time that must
necessary responses
first pass
Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI)
Predictable
Paid a ten dollars for Paid a ten dollars after
every 5 items made every hour worked

Unpredictable Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI)

(“On the
Paid a ten dollars for Paid a ten dollars at a
Average”)
approximately 3 - 5 random time after one
items made hour is worked

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 Effectiveness of Different
Schedules of Reinforcement

Adapted from "Teaching Machines" by B.F. Skinner, Copyright © 1961 by Scientific American, Inc.
All rights reserved.
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 Schedules and Extinction
• Failure to reinforce a response
extinguishes that response.

• Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect

– If there is partial reinforcement it is very hard
to extinguish a behavior
– Explains why superstitious behaviors are
resistant to extinction… gambling

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 Self Stimulation – James Olds
• Pleasure Center in brain – Median
Forebrain Bundle

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 Punishment
• Reduces the frequency of an operant
behavior by presenting an unpleasant
stimulus or removing a pleasant one.

• Negative Reinforcement ≉ Punishment

– Negative reinforcement: Strengthens
behavior.
– Punishment: Weakens behavior
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Figure 6.10: Two Kinds of
Punishment

43 Return
 Potential Drawbacks of
Punishment
• Does not “erase” an undesirable habit;
merely suppresses it. (don’t get caught)

• Sometimes produces unwanted side

effects.

• Often ineffective unless given immediately

after the response and each time the
response is made.
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 Potential Drawbacks of
Punishment (cont’d.)
• Can become aggression, even abuse, if
administered in anger.

• Children are more likely to behave

aggressively if frequently punished.

• Signals what is inappropriate behavior but

does not specify correct alternative
behavior.
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 Guidelines for Effective
Punishment
• Specify why punishment is being given.

• Without being abusive, punishment should

be immediate and noticeable enough to
eliminate the undesirable behavior.

• Identify and reinforce more appropriate

behaviors.
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 Learned Helplessness
• Tendency to give up any effort to control
the environment after experience suggests
that no control is possible.

• First demonstrated in animals.

• All active behavior is extinguished when

there don’t seem to be positive
consequences from them.
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 Observational Learning
• Learning by Watching Others -
Observing another person’s
behavior changes the
observer’s behavior.
– Also called social learning.
• Bandura’s Bobo Doll
experiment
• Powerful source of the
socialization process. - Peer
Pressure
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 Bandura’s Bobo Doll…
Observational Learning
• Adult models
behavior
• Children
watch
• When alone,
children copy
the behavior
of the adults.
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Children See, Children Do

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Observational
Learning
Vicarious
Conditioning -

Observing another
person being
reinforced for
behavior changes
the observers
behavior 51
 Main Learning Theories Summary
• Classical Conditioning
– Pairing stimuli leads to conditioned responses
– Pavlov, Watson
• Operant Conditioning
– Behavior is shaped by its consequences
– Schedules of reinforcement
– Thorndike, Skinner
• Observational Learning
– People learn by watching others and observing the
consequences others receive
– Bandura
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