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Healthier meat and meat products: Their role as functional foods

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DOI: 10.1016/S0309-1740(01)00053-5 · Source: PubMed

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 Meat Science 59 (2001) 5–13
www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci

Review

Healthier meat and meat products: their role as functional foods

F. Jiménez-Colmenero *, J. Carballo, S. Cofrades
Instituto del Frı´o (CSIC), Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain

Received 26 October 2000; received in revised form 23 January 2001; accepted 4 February 2001

Abstract
This review deals with the implications of meat and meat products for human health. It analyses the effect of the presence or
absence of various factors: fat, fatty acid composition, cholesterol, calorific value, salt, nitrite or lipid oxidation products that can
cause health problems. Bearing in mind these considerations, it then describes the strategies used in animal production, treatment of
meat raw material and reformulation of meat products to obtain healthier meat and meat products. Functional ingredients are
responsible for making functional foods work, and this review therefore discusses the scope of current meat technology to favour
the presence of various active-food components, and provide an additional physiological benefit beyond that of meeting basic
nutritional needs. # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Meat and meat products; Human health; Healthier; Functional foods

1. Introduction what are known as ‘‘functional foods’’. These are

defined as foods that are used to prevent and treat cer-
In rich societies, consumers increasingly attach tain disorders and diseases, in addition to their nutri-
importance to all those aspects that improve their qual- tional value per se. In fact, this is not a new idea, for
ity of life. Diet is not the only factor that affects well- centuries mankind has been exploiting the properties of
being and health, but it is one of the most important. certain foods to treat, mitigate or prevent diseases.
The aim is to have balanced, varied diets containing However, the large amount of scientific evidence avail-
even safer and even healthier foods still with a pleasant able on the relationship between food intake and the
mouthfeel. Factors that have fostered this development incidence of disease has led to a burgeoning interest in
include the tremendous current impact on public opin- foods that provide additional physiological benefits.
ion of the media on the relationship between diet and There are three basic requirements for a food to be
health, the growing life-expectancy of the population regarded as functional (Goldberg, 1994): (1) it is a food
(consumers have a high purchasing power and greater (not capsules, tablets, or powder) derived from natural
health problems and they are very eager to take part in occurring ingredients; (2) it can and should be con-
any initiative to keep healthy), more concern with sumed as a part of the daily diet; and (3) once ingested, it
disease prevention, etc. must regulate specific processes such as enhancing
It is this complex situation that lies behind the spec- biological defence mechanisms, preventing and treating
tacular growth in the development of ‘‘healthier’’ pro- specific diseases, controlling physical and mental condi-
ducts. Such products must possess one of the following tions, and delaying the ageing process.
characteristics: modified composition and/or processing Meat and meat products are essential components in
conditions to prevent or limit the presence of certain the diets of developed countries. Their consumption is
potentially harmful compounds, and/or the possibility affected by various factors. The most important ones
of including certain desirable substances, either natu- are product characteristics (sensory and nutritional
rally or by addition, with the subsequent added benefits properties, safety, price, convenience, etc.) and con-
to health. The concept of ‘‘healthier’’ products includes sumer and environment-related ones (psychological,
health, family or educational aspects, general economic
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34-91-544-5607; fax: +34-91-549- situation, climate, legislation, etc.). These factors are
3627. usually closely linked to social, economic, political and
E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Jiménez-Colmenero). geographical aspects. The consequence of all this is that
0309-1740/01/$ - see front matter # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0309-1740(01)00053-5
6 F. Jiménez-Colmenero et al. / Meat Science 59 (2001) 5–13

in rich societies one of the aspects that most affects the the information is frequently contradictory. However,
‘‘image’’ and hence the consumption of meat is whether there are a number of proven facts as regards fat intake.
it is perceived as healthy. Obviously, there are some There is evidence that fat-rich diets, as well as causing
aspects that are currently causing a lack of confidence. obesity, are also directly related to the risk of colon
One of them is the implication of certain meat con- cancer. Fat and cholesterol are also associated with
stituents in some of the most prevalent diseases in our cardiovascular diseases. In light of these implications,
society (cardiovascular disease, cancer, hypertension various international institutions, among them the
and obesity). Another is the outbreak of bovine spon- World Health Organization (WHO), have drawn up the
giform encephalopathy (BSE), and Salmonella in following nutritional recommendations: fat should pro-
chicken, scandals arising from the use of clembuterol, vide between 15 and 30% of the calories in the diet,
and more recently dioxin-contaminated animal feed in saturated fat should not provide more than 10% of
Belgium. These two types of phenomenon are very dif- these calories, and cholesterol intake should be limited
ferent in nature, but together they help create a crisis to 300 mg/day. Clearly, these limitations refer not only
situation which is proving highly detrimental to the to the amount of fat but also to the fatty acid composi-
industry. tion and the cholesterol levels in foods, of which meat
Meat and meat products are important sources of and meat products constitute a major part.
proteins, vitamins and minerals, but they also contain All fats do not have the same metabolism, and there-
fat, saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, salt, etc. In order fore the extent to which the composition of meat and
to produce ‘‘healthier’’ meat products we need to fully meat derivatives should be modified is closely linked to
understand their positive and negative effects on health. cholesterol levels and fat intake (and the fatty acid pro-
Only then shall we be able to devise suitable strategies file). Meat fat content can vary widely depending on
to effectively control and adjust their characteristics to various factors such as species, feeding, cut, degree of
suit our needs. separation of the fat in the various handling phases
(processing of the carcass, cutting, preparation of com-
mercial cuts, removal by the consumer), cooking condi-
2. Implication of meat for human health tions, etc. The lipid content in edible lean meat today is
less than 5% (Chizzolini, Zanardi, Dorigoni, & Ghidini,
Like any other food, meat and meat products contain 1999), so it can no longer be considered an energy-rich
elements which in certain circumstances and in inap- food. However, this is not the case of some of the lead-
propriate proportions have a negative effect on human ing commercial meat products, where the percentages
health. Some of these are constituents (natural or can be as high as 40–50% and structural disintegration
otherwise) present in live animals, for instance, fat, is so great that the consumer cannot reduce the high fat
cholesterol, residues from environmental pollution or content.
the use of pharmaceuticals, etc. Others are added to the Fatty acid composition has a considerable effect on
product during processing for technological, micro- the diet/health relationship, since each fatty acid affects
biological or sensory reasons (salt, nitrite, phosphate, the plasmatic lipids differently. Meat lipids usually con-
etc.). There is a third group that is produced by tech- tain less than 50% saturated fatty acids (SFAs of which
nological treatment (including contaminants from dis- only 25–35% have atherogenic properties), and up to
infectants or detergents, toxic compounds formed 70% (beef 50–52%, pork 55–57%, lamb 50–52%,
during cooking, etc.). Finally, there are those that chicken 70%, rabbit 62%) unsaturated fatty acids
develop particularly in the storage/commercialisation (monounsaturates, MUFAs, and polyunsaturates,
phase, notably the growth of some pathogenic bacteria, PUFAs; Romans, Costello, Carlson, Greaser, & Jones,
the formation of certain lipid oxidation products and 1994). The presence of MUFAs and PUFAs in the diet
the migration of compounds from the packing material reduces the level of plasma low-density lipoproteins-
to the product. cholesterol, although PUFAs also depress the high
Below is an analysis of several of the most important density lipoproteins-cholesterol (Mattson & Grundy,
aspects of the potential health problems associated with 1985). Hence, it does not seem reasonable to describe
meat consumption. Meat safety aspects like chemical meat generally as a highly saturated food, especially in
residues, emerging pathogens or BSE, although of comparison with some other products (e.g. some dairy
notable interest (Tarrant, 1998), are not dealt with in products).
this review. The amount of cholesterol in meat and meat products
depends on numerous factors, but in general it is less
2.1. Fat, fatty acids, cholesterol and calorific value than 75 mg/100 g, except in the case of some edible offal
(heart, kidney, brains, etc.) where the concentrations are
The general nutritional and health implications of fats much higher (Chizzolini et al., 1999; Romans et al.,
and oils is an area of research and development where 1994). From meat consumption and cholesterol content
 F. Jiménez-Colmenero et al. / Meat Science 59 (2001) 5–13 7

data, it has been estimated that from one-third to one- 1994). However, the sodium in meat derivatives is much
half of the daily recommended cholesterol intake (less higher because of the salt content, which can be as much
than 300mg) is provided by meat (Chizzolini et al., as 2% in heat-treated products (e.g. sausages) and as
1999). much as 6% in uncooked cured products, in which
In industrialised countries, although levels are falling, drying (loss of moisture) increases the proportion even
some 36–40% of the total calories in the food supply further. Estimations taking eating habits into account
come from fat (well above the recommended limit of suggest that approximately 20–30% of common salt
30%), nearly half of which is from meat intake (Byers, intake comes from meat and meat derivatives (Wirth,
Turner, & Cross, 1993; Sheard, Wood, Nute, & Ball, 1991).
1998). Different dietary guidelines (Paneras, Bloukas, &
Filis, 1998) offer recommendations as to the source of
calorie intake: no more than 10% should come from 2.3. Toxic compounds produced during meat processing
saturated fatty acids, no more than 10% from poly- and storage
unsaturated fatty acids, and 10–15% should come from
monounsaturated fatty acids. Approximately 34% of Like other complex foods, meat and meat products
the calories in the Mediterranean diet come from lipids. undergo major chemical changes during processing and
Of these, 10% come from saturated fatty acids, 18% from commercialisation (grinding, cooking, storage, exposure
monounsaturated and 6% from omega-6 fatty acids. to light, etc.). These changes include the formation of
The data used for fat intake (and other constituents) numerous compounds, many of which impart desirable
are generally based on the amount of meat marketed characteristics to food. Others, however, can possess
and meat composition parameters. Nevertheless, for a potentially harmful biological properties. The com-
more realistic estimation of fat and calorie intake, we pounds that can cause disease include polycyclic aro-
need to know the exact amount and final composition matic hydrocarbons (PAHs), nitrosamines and lipid
of the products consumed, information that cannot be oxidation products (Hotchkiss & Parker, 1990).
obtained from the aforementioned data. Currently, only PAHs result from the combustion of organic matter
about 60% of meat production (after elimination of in the cooking and smoking of meat and meat products,
non-edible parts) is used in human food (Klurfeld, as in many other foods. Their presence is determined by
1994). On the other hand, many foods, like meat, a number of factors, among them the composition of
undergo different treatments prior to consumption (e.g. the product and the heat treatment applied. It is
cooking), which may affect composition. In the light of important to detect variable amounts of these hydro-
these considerations, Sheard et al. (1998) have indicated carbons in certain meat derivatives, as some of them are
that the actual amount of meat consumed in the UK is carcinogenic (Hotchkiss & Parker, 1990).
30–40% less than that estimated by the compilers of the Sodium nitrite used in cured meat products interacts
National Food Survey (NFS; based on the amount of with various constituents in the meat’s complex biolo-
meat purchased). Bearing in mind that these same gical systems. Thus at the end of the manufacturing
authors indicate that large quantities of fat (almost process only about 10–20% of the nitrite originally
25%) are released during meat cooking, the new calcu- added can be detected with analysis. Residual nitrite
lations reveal that actual fat consumption (and hence levels can drop even further during storage and dis-
calorie content) has dropped from 18.1 (NFS estimate) tribution, and again during preparation and consump-
to 13.6 g per person per day. This can even be as low as tion (Cassens, 1997). Despite the technological,
10.3 where subcutaneous fat and skin are also removed microbiological and sensory advantages of nitrite, its
(as in chicken and turkey), all without any change in use was brought seriously into question in the 1970s
meat consumption figures. because of its interaction with secondary amines to form
N-nitrosamines, chemical agents with carcinogenic
2.2. Salt properties. These compounds, which are detected in a
number of different foods, including heat-treated cured
It has recently been recommended that salt intake be meat products, can form both in the product itself,
reduced in light of the relationship between high sodium depending on the heating conditions, salt and nitrite
levels and arterial hypertension. A large percentage of concentration, pH or ascorbate content, and also in the
the population possesses a hereditary predisposition to consumer’s stomach after ingestion (Pegg & Shahidi,
arterial hypertension, the incidence of which is further 1997; Shahidi, 1989). Recently, Cassens (1997) high-
affected by excess weight and high sodium intake. lighted the need to review the effect on health of residual
Sodium comes from a wide variety of foods, among nitrite and ascorbate in meat derivatives (the latter
them meat and meat derivatives. inhibit the formation of N-nitrosamines). New scientific
Meat as such is relatively poor in sodium, containing evidence also points to the health benefits of nitrite
only 50–90 mg of sodium per 100 g (Romans et al., (and/or its reaction products).
8 F. Jiménez-Colmenero et al. / Meat Science 59 (2001) 5–13

Polyunsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol may partitioning agents, immunisation of animals against
undergo oxidation during the preparation and storage target circulation hormones or releasing factors and
of meat and meat products. This oxidation produces gene manipulation techniques (Bass, Butler-Hogg, &
numerous compounds (hydroperoxides, aldehydes, Kirton, 1990; Byers et al., 1993; Hay & Preston, 1994).
ketones, cholesterol oxides such as oxysterols, etc.), By selecting races and genetic lines, carcass composi-
some of which are believed to have mutagenic and car- tion has been significantly altered. This has led to a
cinogenic effects, and cytotoxic properties. Oxidation substantial reduction in fattiness and a higher percen-
products are usually not abundant in foods and are well tage of unsaturated fatty acids (Hay & Preston, 1994;
below the threshold of toxicity. The threshold of sen- Morrissey, Sheeny, Galvin, Kerry, & Buckley, 1998).
sory detection of these compounds is also very low, The ratio of fat to lean in pig and cattle carcasses is
which together with their unpleasant smell and taste, affected by the diet composition and feeding levels,
means that they are easily detected and the food is particularly the energy and protein intake. In pigs,
rejected. This is a mechanism to protect against expo- restricting the energy intake will reduce carcass fat, and
sure to high concentrations of these substances, but the feeding excess protein will result in a higher proportion
long-term impact on health of continually consuming of lean to fat (Hay & Preston, 1994). Dietary fatty acid
small amounts is not known (Hotchkiss & Parker, composition is an extremely important part of the fatty
1990). acid profiles of monogastric animals (pigs, poultry) and
is less important in ruminants (cattle) where desirable
combinations of fatty acids are to be obtained for
3. Strategies for achieving healthier meat and meat human consumption (Byers et al., 1993) with less satu-
products rated and more mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Increasing the amount of unsaturated fatty acids in
As in other food sectors, in order to achieve healthier meat means that there is a greater possibility of oxida-
meat and meat derivatives (even with functional prop- tion, a process that has undesirable sensory or health
erties), it is necessary to avoid undesired substances effects. There are several ways of minimising lipid oxi-
(natural or otherwise) or reduce them to appropriate dation and some of them are associated with animal
limits, and to increase the levels (naturally or by pro- feeding (Decker & Xu, 1998; Morrissey et al., 1998). A
grammed additions) of other substances with beneficial vitamin E-supplemented diet in poultry, pigs and cattle
properties (functional ingredients). prolongs the shelf-life of these products. The anti-
Essentially, three kinds of strategies are used to achieve oxidant activity reduces rancidity and helps the meat
this: these are associated with animal production, the retain its colour (Pszczola, 1998). Feeding strategies
handling of meat raw materials, and the reformulation of have been successfully used to produce eggs, beef and
meat derivatives. The various stages through which the chicken with up to 20 times the normal level of DHA
product passes before it is consumed (storage, transport, (docosahexaenoic acid, 22:6 n-3), 7 times the normal
shelf display, etc.) are important because of their effect level of vitamin E and 6 times the normal omega-3
on meat characteristics, some of which affect human content of their traditional counterparts (Sloan, 2000).
health. The consumer-dependent stages (storage at By using partitioning agents like anabolisers, growth
home, cooking, etc.), although primarily associated with hormones, etc., or immunisation strategies, it is possible
food safety, are also of importance. to alter those metabolic processes that regulate the use
Some examples of the techniques currently being used of nutrients during growth, thus promoting protein
to produce healthier meat and meat products are given synthesis and reducing fat deposition (Bass et al., 1990;
below. Beermann, 1994; Byers et al., 1993). For example, the
administration of somatotropin to pigs can lead to a
3.1. Modification of carcass composition 60% reduction in carcass fat, a 70% increase in carcass
protein content and 27% less lipid content in lean tis-
Apart from aspects relating to food safety (residues, sues containing as much as 40 and 37% less of SFAs
BSE, etc.), carcass composition can be altered at the and MUFAs, respectively, and no differences in PUFAs
animal production stage. (Solomon, 1994). Strategies for reducing carcass fat
The composition of the carcass, and hence also of content include elimination of castration, level of
commercial cuts, varies not only according to species, maturity, and so forth (Bass et al., 1990).
but also according to breed, age, sex, feed type, etc. A
wide range of strategies is available for inducing chan- 3.2. Manipulation of meat raw materials
ges in different meat constituents such as protein, lipid
content, fatty acid composition, and vitamin E level, It is possible to intervene at any stage in the process of
etc. These include genetic selection, nutrition and feed- transformation of muscle into meat and in the various
ing management, growth-promoting and nutrient different stages of raw material preparation to alter
 F. Jiménez-Colmenero et al. / Meat Science 59 (2001) 5–13 9

the meat composition and thereby achieve healthier with appropriate amounts of water, fat (animal or
products. vegetable depending on the new composition), flavour-
The desire to limit the fat content of commercial cuts ings (with modified formulation) and other ingredients
has encouraged the development of several procedures (fat replacements or substitutes), which coupled with
designed to separate and/or extract both visible fat and technological processes give the product certain desir-
fat located in less accessible parts of the muscle tissue able characteristics, such as improved composition,
where it is more difficult to remove. The most immedi- sensory and technological properties, safety, nutritional
ate system consists of extensive trimming to remove value, convenience, etc.
external and internal fat from the carcass; further trim- Consequently, the development of low-fat products
ming is done on primal cuts and, where necessary, the means that factors associated with meat raw materials,
defatting is completed on retail cuts. However, this is non-meat ingredients, and manufacture and preparation
sometimes not feasible or desirable because of lower procedures (Jiménez Colmenero, 1996; Keeton, 1994)
yields, costs and other considerations. Depending on the together with other factors such as the characteristics of
type of meat raw materials and the required fat content, the new derivative must be taken into account. These
fairly complex physicochemical techniques have been characteristics include the class of product (patties,
applied, generally consisting of reducing the meat par- frankfurters, bolognas, etc.), the final composition
ticle size before preparing (modifying the pH, ionic desired (percentage and fat type, protein, salt, etc.), and
strength of the medium, etc.) and then proceeding to the the processing type required (cooking, smoking, dry-
actual extraction or separation processes based on curing, etc.). All these factors affect the various quality
cryoconcentration, centrifugation, decantation, etc. attributes, and it is hard to determine their behaviour
beforehand when such variables as composition, pH,
ionic strength and some physical and chemical properties
3.3. Reformulation of meat products are introduced.

Depending on the product type (composed of identi-

fiable pieces of meat, coarsely or finely ground, emul- 3.3.2. Modification of the fatty acid profile
sions, cooked, cured, etc.), one of the best moments at There are essentially two procedures whereby meat
which to alter the composition of foods is perhaps dur- fatty acid composition can be altered, simultaneously
ing one of the preparation stages. At this stage refor- with fat reduction or otherwise. The first of these is to
mulation is used as far as possible to develop a range of use genetic and feeding strategies (discussed earlier) to
derivatives with custom-designed composition and improve the degree of lipid unsaturation. Sausages con-
properties. For this there are two possible types of taining high concentrations of monounsaturated acids
complementary intervention. The first involves reducing have been made with meat raw materials from pigs fed
some compounds normally present in these foods to on safflower, sunflower and canola oils (Sackelford,
appropriate amounts, for example, fat, SFAs, salt, Miller, Haydon, & Reagan, 1990; St. John, Buyck,
nitrites and so on. The second is to incorporate ingre- Keeton, Leu, & Smith, 1986).
dients that are potentially health-enhancing (func- The second procedure consists of replacing part of the
tional), for example, fibre, certain types of vegetable animal fat normally present in the product with another
protein, MUFAs and PUFAs, antioxidants, etc. more suited to human needs, i.e. with less saturated
There are numerous aspects to be taken into account fatty acids and more monounsaturated (oleic) or poly-
in the development of these kinds of products (Jiménez- unsaturated acids, and with no cholesterol. Although
Colmenero, 2000). The new meat derivative must have simple fat replacement does not reduce the caloric con-
the appropriate technological, sensory and nutritional tent, it does greatly improve the nutritional qualities of
properties, and be safe and convenient for consumption, the product. Both fish oils (omega-3 polyunsaturated
etc. Ignoring such requirements, which are demanded oil) and vegetable oils (partially hydrogenated from
by the reference products if they are to be improved, not corn, cottonseed, palm, peanut and soybean, peanut,
only compromises the success of the derivatives con- high-oleic acid sunflower, cottonseed, olive) have been
cerned but also projects a bad image of these meat used for this purpose in products such as patties and
derivatives and creates a lack of confidence which is sausages (Liu, Huffman, & Egbert, 1991; Marquez,
difficult to surmount. Some examples of meat product Ahmed, West, & Johnson, 1989; Park, Rhee, Keeton, &
reformulation processes are given below. Rhee, 1989; Paneras et al., 1998). Depending on the
kind of oil, products may present some differences
3.3.1. Reduction of fat content (including sensory differences) from their reference pro-
Generally speaking, fat reduction is achieved by ducts, but these differences can be readjusted by means
reformulation. This consists of combining pre-selected of one or more strategies for the production of low-fat
meat raw materials (leaner and of known composition) products (Jiménez Colmenero, 1996).
10 F. Jiménez-Colmenero et al. / Meat Science 59 (2001) 5–13

3.3.3. Reduction of cholesterol of proteins or carbohydrates, but the role of fat

In the last few decades there has been a clear drop in replacement should not be ignored.
the fat content of carcasses, but there is no easy way of Simple fat reduction helps limit the calorie intake
determining whether the same is also true of cholesterol from meat products, but in many cases this may not be
content (Chizzolini et al., 1999). There are two basic sufficient to meet WHO’s dietary recommendations. For
reasons for this. Firstly, comparisons are difficult example, in products with 10–12% protein and 25–30%
because analytical methods have improved so much in fat, over 80% of the calorie intake comes from lipids.
recent years. Secondly, the amount of intra- and inter- In meat derivatives containing only 6% fat, as much as
muscular fat is not always directly related to the cho- 50% of the calories come from fatty compounds. It is
lesterol level. In dry matter, the amount of cholesterol in only possible to reduce the intake of fat from lipids
beef, pork, lamb and poultry lean tissue may be as much to 30%, either by drastically reducing fat content to
as twice that present in adipose tissue, but in wet matter, around 2%, or by diluting it with fat replacements or
the cholesterol content of lean tissues is slightly lower substitutes that improve the protein/fat/carbohydrate
than that of adipose tissue (Mandigo, 1991). This goes balance (Shand, Schmidt, Mandingo, & Claus, 1990).
some way to explain why the cholesterol content of
meat products is not clearly related to the fat content 3.3.5. Reduction of sodium content
(within wide margins: 1–35%), even after cooking has Sodium reduction requires partially substituting the
caused weight loss by eliminating water (and to a lesser sodium chloride added to meat derivatives by other
extent, fat as well), and changed the composition compounds that have similar effects on sensory, tech-
(Hoelscher, Savell, Harris, Cross, & Rhee, 1987). The nological and microbiological properties. The extent to
reduction of fat in beef patties (from 20 to 9.8%) and its which salt levels can be limited depends on the product
replacement by lean meat does not lower cholesterol type (Wirth, 1991).
(Egbert, Huffman, Chen, & Dylewski, 1991). Reducing A number of compounds have been used for this
the percentage of fat in the product therefore does not purpose, among them chlorides other than NaCl, such
seem to be a viable method for lowering cholesterol in as potassium and magnesium salts. Although total sub-
meat derivatives. It has even been suggested that when stitution of NaCl does not seem possible because of
fat is reduced by increasing the proportion of lean meat, sensory reasons, a combination of sodium, potassium
the cholesterol level in the product may even increase and magnesium salts may produce satisfactory results.
(Mandigo, 1991). A case in point are certain commercial preparations
Products with less cholesterol can be obtained by used in the meat industry, which contain 43% less sodium
replacing fat and lean meat raw materials (since dietary and do not have the sensory disadvantages frequently
cholesterol is strictly linked to animal cells) with other associated with NaCl substitutes (Pszczola, 1999).
vegetable materials containing no cholesterol. A num- The addition of phosphates to meat products reduces
ber of meat products (sausages, patties, etc.) have been the negative effect of lower salt levels by improving
reformulated by reducing and/or partially replacing sensory and technological properties (e.g. fat and water-
animal fat with vegetable oils (peanut, canola, sun- retention capacity) and it does not raise the sodium
flower, olive, etc.) and adding vegetable proteins (soy, levels. Moreover, the antimicrobial and antioxidant
maize, oats, etc.). For example, the use of peanut oil to activity of phosphates promotes product stability. The
replace 60% of the beef fat in frankfurters containing extent of these effects depends on a number of factors,
29% fat reduced the cholesterol content by more than including phosphate type and concentration, the pro-
35% (Marquez et al., 1989). Paneras et al. (1998), using duct pH, the NaCl content, the presence of other inhi-
olive, cottonseed and soy oils, obtained frankfurters bitors (e.g. nitrites or sorbates), the heat treatment used,
(10% fat) with up to 59% less cholesterol than normal etc. With phosphates, the salt normally present in a
frankfurters containing 30% animal fat. meat derivative can be reduced by as much as 50%.
In the meat industry, salt levels can be reduced by
3.3.4. Reduction of calories lactates, as flavour enhancers and inhibitors of micro-
In keeping with dietary recommendations, both the bial growth, and by collagen hydrolysates as flavour
total caloric content and the percentage of calories from enhancers. Texture can be altered and binding proper-
fat (also the fatty acid profile) will be the new criteria ties improved by the gel-forming properties of calcium
for evaluation of consumer-manipulated foods. They alginate (which unlike other hydrocolloids forms
are therefore a key consideration in designing the new chemical gels at low temperatures) or the activity of
composition of any product. The calorific values (per transglutaminase, which aid certain protein interactions.
gram) of the principal components of foods are: fat 9 These new methods are particularly useful to the meat
kcal, proteins 4 kcal and carbohydrates 4 kcal. Calorie industry for restructured products, since all these prop-
intake is most frequently limited by reducing the pro- erties are also imparted to non-heat-treated products
portion of fat, where the content is more than twice that with little or no salt or phosphates (Pszczola, 1999).
 F. Jiménez-Colmenero et al. / Meat Science 59 (2001) 5–13 11

3.3.6. Reduction of nitrites now. It is however only more recently that their role in
There are two basic strategies for reducing the poten- the treatment and prevention of various diseases, or
tial health risks of nitrites in meat products. One is to their long-term impact on ageing processes, has been
reduce or eliminate the addition of nitrite, and the other established. Twelve broad groups of ingredients (of
is to use N-nitrosamine inhibitors. animal and vegetable origin) have been identified as
N-nitrosamine production depends on the residual having potentially beneficial effects for human health
nitrite level. Reducing this level will lower the risk of (Goldberg, 1994): (1) dietary fibre; (2) oligosaccharides;
these carcinogenic compounds forming. In fact, residual (3) sugars/alcohols; (4) amino acids, peptides and pro-
nitrite has been substantially reduced (as much as 80%) teins; (5) glucosides; (6) alcohols; (7) isoprenes and
in the last few years. This change has come about vitamins; (8) choline; (9) lactic acid bacteria; (10)
thanks to the addition of less nitrite, the increased use of minerals; (11) unsaturated fatty acids; and (12) others
ascorbates, improvements in manufacturing processes not included in the preceding categories (e.g. anti-
and changes in composition (e.g. larger proportions of oxidants). Many of these ingredients have been or are
ingredients; Cassens, 1997). Nevertheless, N-nitrosa- currently being studied, and the results obtained are
mine production cannot be totally eliminated while its very different. The effects of the habitual transformation
precursors (nitrites, amines and amino acids) are still and conservation processes on the specific activity these
present. Alternatives must therefore be found, but this is ingredients should also be assessed. The use of one or
not easy because of the numerous reactions of N-nitro- more of these ingredients in meat products has opened
samine with the complex biological systems present in up an enormous range of possibilities, some of which
meat. Indeed, it is impossible to find any single com- have been investigated and even commercialised. Yet
pound capable of replacing the functions of nitrite. The there is much still to be done in what will surely be one
solution must therefore be to combine several com- of the most important areas in the coming years. Some
pounds, which together have a cumulative effect on examples of functional ingredients in meat derivatives
colour, flavour, and antioxidant and antimicrobial are given below.
activity. Dietary fibres from oat, sugar beet, soy, apple, pea,
Proposals for alternatives to the colouring effects of etc., have been included in the formulation of several
nitrites range from using colorants like erythrosin to meat products such as patties and sausages (Cofrades,
forming the same pigment that occurs naturally in the Guerra, Carballo, Fernández-Martı́n, & Jiménez Col-
cured product (mononitrosyl ferrohemochrome) outside menero, 2000; Keeton, 1994; Troutt, Hunt, Johnson,
the meat system and adding it later (Pegg & Shahidi, Claus, Kastner, & Kropf, 1992). In many instances,
1997). The flavour of cured products is associated with these dietary fibres not only have beneficial physi-
the cumulative effect of very small amounts of numer- ological effects thanks to their resistance to hydrolysis
ous compounds. The role of nitrite in flavour appears to by digestive enzymes, but they also generate important
be related to its antioxidant activity, which prevents a technological properties that offset the effect of fat
further build-up of these substances. To reproduce this reduction. Inulin, a polymer of fructose with health-
property, there have been assays combining chemical enhancing properties extracted from chicory (Pszczola,
antioxidants and chelating agents. Sorbic acid and 1998), is being used in products like sausages or cooked
potassium sorbate, sodium hypophosphite, fumaric acid ham.
esters, parabens and even lactic acid-producing bacteria Protein derivatives of vegetable origin have been used
have been used to reproduce the microbial action of in meat products for technological purposes to reduce
nitrites (Shahidi, 1989). formulation costs and they have even been used for
Compounds like ascorbate and erythorbate help inhi- their nutritional value. Soy and sunflower proteins,
bit the formation of N-nitrosamines, but their solubility wheat and maize derivatives, and flours from cottonseed
in adipose tissue is too slight for them to be really and oats, some of which contain health-enhancing sub-
effective. There have been studies on the action of sev- stances, have all been used as fat replacements (Keeton,
eral liposoluble derivatives of ascorbic acid (l-ascorbyl 1994). For example, soy has been described as useful in
palmitate, long-chain acetals), combinations of a-toco- the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases,
pherol and ascorbate, and lactic acid (Pegg & Shahidi, cancer and osteoporosis, and in the relief of menopausal
1997). In recent years there has been a noticeable symptoms (Hasler, 1998). Sunflower protein is rich in l-
increase in the residual ascorbate in commercialised arginine, which combined with a low l-lysine/l-arginine
meat products (Cassens, 1997). ratio, is extremely useful in the prevention of hypercho-
lesterolaemia and platelet aggregation. The meat indus-
3.3.7. Incorporation of functional ingredients try has not been blind to the beneficial effects
The action of functional foods is based on the use of (cholesterol reduction, anticancer and combating of
functional ingredients. The health benefits of certain enteric pathogens and other intestinal organisms) of
substances in food have been recognised for some time some microorganisms traditionally occurring in
12 F. Jiménez-Colmenero et al. / Meat Science 59 (2001) 5–13

fermentative processes. For instance, some makers are food when it is consumed rather than when it is pro-
commercialising ‘‘chorizo’’ (dry fermented sausage) duced or sold.
inoculated with ‘‘active bifidus’’ and ‘‘Lactobacilus Meat and its derivatives may be considered functional
casei’’ and treated in specific conditions to ensure foods to the extent that they contain numerous com-
microbial activity. This activity helps digestion by pounds thought to be functional. The idea of using food
reducing the absorption of fat and cholesterol and for health purposes rather than for nutrition opens up a
promoting the assimilation of nutrients. whole new field for the meat industry. In addition to
As mentioned earlier, the importance of the lipid traditional presentations, the meat industry can explore
component in food for health has prompted the emer- various possibilities, including the control of the com-
gence of various procedures (raw materials and refor- position of raw and processed materials to produce
mulation of products) to alter their presence both design foods reformulated to have specific properties,
quantitatively (reducing their proportion) and qualita- for example, fatty acid profiles, the inclusion of anti-
tively (for example, promoting the presence of omega-3 oxidants, dietary fibre, probiotics, etc. In many such
fatty acids and oleic acid). In addition to these changes, products it may be necessary to use new ingredients
the lipid material also undergoes changes during meat and/or methods which affect the technological,
processing, which can be beneficial to health. Con- microbiological and sensory properties.
jugated linoleic acid has recently been detected in Several aspects of these products need to be con-
cooked meat. This compound is useful because it is sidered. The continued bio-availability of many of the
anticarcinogenic and it occurs precisely in heat-treated functional compounds should be ensured throughout
meat products in which some mutagenic and carcino- the various stages of processing and commercial stor-
genic substances have been found (Hasler, 1998). age. Furthermore, the optimum levels of the biologically
A number of strategies are being used to enhance active components should be established in order to
antioxidant activity in meat systems and to reduce the ensure that their effects are genuinely beneficial in the
formation of oxidation products with their subsequent concentrations and conditions in which they are
impact on ageing, cancer and cardiovascular disease consumed (Hasler, 1998).
(Decker & Xu, 1998). Some are based on intervention in Knowledge, variety and moderation are the key ele-
raw materials, for instance modification of animal diet ments of diet and nutrition. Having a balanced diet is
to increase the amount of endogenous antioxidants the consumer’s responsibility, but the food industry
(vitamin E, carotenoids, etc.), to reduce the amount of should also co-operate and provide a wide range of
pro-oxidants and/or to alter the oxidisable substrate products in response to this need.
(fatty acid composition). Others improve oxidative sta-
bility by acting upon the very processing, for instance,
exogenous antioxidants (nitrite, phenolic antioxidants, Acknowledgements
tocopherols, plant derivatives, chelating agents, etc.) are
added and packaging technologies are used to limit the This research was supported by the Comisión Inter-
presence of oxygen. There are currently a number of ministerial de Ciencia y Tecnologı́a (CICYT) for the
vitamin C and E-enriched meat products on the market ALI99-1105 project.
(e.g. sausage and cooked ham).

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