Subsurface Exploration

The process of determining the sequence of layers of natural soil deposits

that will underlie a proposed structure and their physical properties is
generally referred to as site investigation.

 Prerequisite to the economical design of substructure elements

 Necessary for feasibility and economic studies of a project
 To eliminate the site exploration, which usually is 0.5-1% of the total
construction cost of a project, is not wise as it may lead to redesign of
foundation of facing problems afterwards
 Suitable sites in urban areas are difficult to find and often sites targeted
are reclaimed land and have many anomalies
 35~40% of all delays in buildings are due to unforeseen ground problems
 50% of insurance claims on properties are to geotechnical problems
 SI properly carried out under qualified supervision can reduce project
cost, maintenance and produce safer structures no matter how large or
small the project
 More important: SI data is only as good as the design and operation of
the SI. GARBAGE IN = GARBAGE OUT
1
 The purpose of a soil
investigation program
1. Selection of the type and the depth of foundation suitable for a
given structure.
2. Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3. Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure.
4. Determination of potential foundation problems (for example,
expansive soil, collapsible soil, sanitary landfill, and so on).
4. Establishment of ground water table.
6. Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures like retaining
walls, sheet pile bulkheads, and braced cuts.
7. Identification of construction problems and their solution
(sheeting, dewatering, rock excavation, etc.)
8. Identification of problems concerning adjacent existing buildings
(settlement, damages)
9. Conducting field tests to measure relevant engineering properties
of soils. 2
FACTORS AFFECTING EXPLORATION
PROGRAMME

Soil exploration program are influenced

by a number of factors some of these
are:
 Size and type of the project;

 General characteristics of the soils in

the work area;
 Time available for exploration; and

 Degree of risk or safety involved.

3
EXPLORATION PROGRAM
The purpose of the exploration program
is to determine, within practical limits,
the stratification and engineering
properties of the soils underlying the
site. The principal properties of interest
will be the strength, deformation, and
hydraulic characteristics. The program
should be planned so that the
maximum amount of information can be
obtained at minimum cost. 4
 Phases of SI
 Project Assessment:
For affective planning of SI program, the geotech engineer must
assess the following aspects of the proposed development.

- The type, purpose, location and appropriate dimension of the proposed

facility, number of storey, type of foundation, provision basement etc.
- The type of construction, structural loads, allowable settlements etc.
- The existing topography and any proposed grading
- The presence of various developments in the site area

All the factors have an impact and thoroughness on SI program, e.g., a

proposed nuclear power plant to be built on difficult ground would
require an extensive SI program and characterization, while a one
storey wood frame building on a good site may require only minimal
effort.

5
Phases of SI

 Frame work/Stages of SI
SI program may consists of the following
stages
1. Desk Study or Literature Search
2. Reconnaissance
3. Preliminary Investigation
4. Detailed Investigation

6
Phases of SI (Stage-I)

 1. Desk Study:
Assembly of all available information regarding the site, it may include
1. The information about the proposed development:
dimensions, column spacing, type and use of the structure, basement
requirements, and any special architectural considerations of the proposed
building. Foundation regulations in the local building code should be consulted
for any special requirements. For bridges the soil engineer should have access
to type and span lengths as well as pier loadings. This information will indicate
any settlement limitations, and can be used to estimate foundation loads.
2. Site history---earlier site use—mining---industrial complexes—Ancient
monuments
3. Geological maps
4. Soil survey reports
5. Geotechnical investigation report of nearby sites
6. Historic ground water
7. Remote sensing data, aerial photogramps, now a days satellite imagery maps

7
 Phases of SI [Stage 2]

2.Reconnaissance of the area:

This may be in the form of a field trip to the site which can reveal
1. Information on the type and behavior of adjacent structures such as cracks,
noticeable sags, and possibly sticking doors and windows. The type of local existing
structure may influence, to a considerable extent, the exploration program and the
best foundation type for the proposed adjacent structure.
2. Includes marking the location of proposed exploratory borings/trenches/test pits
3. The exposed rock and the surface soils are mapped
4. Marking of difficult areas like coverved with organic soil, sanitary fill etc
5. Approximate map of the site area showing the relative position of various existing
features in the site area
6. Further focus on various aspects like:
- Any evidence of previous development on the site
- Any evidence of previous grading on site
- Any evidence of landslides or stability problem
- Performance of nearby structure
- Access to the site
- Affects of any offsite conditions e.g. flooding, mud flow or rock falls etc 8
 Phases of SI [Stage 3]
3.A preliminary site investigation:
-In this phase a few borings are made or a test pit is opened to
establish in a general manner the stratification, types of soil to be
expected, and possibly the location of the groundwater table.
- One or more borings should be taken to rock, or competent strata,
if the initial borings indicate the upper soil is loose or highly
compressible.
- Geophysical methods may be used to establish the tentative
boundary between the strata, especially the location of bed rock.
- Laboratory testing on limited soil samples to evaluate the soil
parameters
This amount of exploration is usually the extent of the site
investigation for small structures and help formulating the scope of
SI for large project at detailed SI stage.
9
 Phases of SI [Stage 4]
4.A detailed site investigation:
Where the preliminary site investigation has established the
feasibility of the project, a more detailed exploration program is
undertaken. The preliminary borings and data are used as a basis
for locating additional borings, which should be confirmatory in
nature, and it may also include:
- In-situ testing
- Procuring soil samples and comprehensive lab testing
- Comprehensive analyses and reporting.
5. During Construction Soil Investigation
If during excavations, the geotechnical condition are changes from the
established condition, more soil investigation may be required to
explore the extent of the changed conditions.

10
Depth of Boring
The approximate required minimum
depth of the borings should be
predetermined. The estimated depths
can be changed during the drilling
operation, depending on the subsoil
encoun­tered. To determine the
approximate minimum depth of boring,
engineers may use the following rule:
11
 Planning/Scope of SI

The SI comprises field testing and Lab

testing.
The field work includes execution of test
pits, borings and field testing in test pits
and borings.
The Lab testing includes all relevant tests
to fully characterize the subsoil
encountered.
12
Planning/Scope of SI

While deciding field work of SI, three aspects are

important
1. Locations 2. Spacing 3. depth of investigation/boring

 Location: The boring should be placed at points of strategic

importance
 At points where heavy loads are anticipated
 At abutments and at points where intermediate piers will come
in case of bridges
 For dams, usually along the centre line but some lateral boring
should be placed on both sides of C/L
 For building units, at corners and at centre of the plan

13
Planning/Scope of SI

Spacing:
 No hard and fast rule

 For structures usually 10-30 m

 For small structures, min of 3 borings

 Structures consisting of separate units, one

boring for each unit
 For Dams, tunnels and other excavations may
be closely spaced to get better geology.

14
Planning/Scope of SI

Depth:
 Up to depths which are affected by loadings, up to influence zone
 Exploration should be extended below all deposits unsuitable for foundation
purposes, e.g. made ground, compressible soils etc
 Up to hard stratum, min 3 m in rocks
More specifically: As per BS-5930-1981
For Shallow Foundations:
To a depth at least 1.5 times the loaded area, and the loaded area may be:
A. the area of the individual footings if footing widely spaced

B. where spacing between the individual footing is less than 3 times footing width
or where floor loading is significant, the loaded area should be the plan area

C. The area of a foundation raft

For Piles
- Up to hard stratum
- Up to atleast 4-5 times of the pile diameter below the intended pile length
15
Planning/Scope of SI

Depth of Boring as Per ASCE (1972)

1. Determine the net increase of stress, under a foundation with

depth as shown in the Figure.
2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, ', with
depth.
3. Determine the depth, D = D1, at which the stress increase  is
equal to (1/10) qo (qo = estimated net contact stress on the
foundation).
4. Determine the depth, D = D2, at which /' = 0.05.

5. Unless bedrock is encountered, the smaller of the two depths,

D1 and D2, just determined is the approximate minimum depth
of boring required.

16
Depth of Boring

Determination of the minimum depth of boring

17
 Sowers Methods for number and depth of Borings

Number of
Borings

Depth of
Borings

18
Method Proposed by Cernica
Divide the proposed area in rectangular sub-division
and mark boring A & B as shown below. The depth
and spacing is indicated in the Table below:

M Depth Spacing
B Descriptio
A n A (ft) B (ft) M (ft) N (ft)
A Light
10 --20 20 -- 25 100 100
(1-2 S)
B Medium
20 --25 30 -- 40 80 -- 100 80 -- 100
A A (3-4 S)
Heavy (5-
30 -- 40 50 -- 80 50 -- 80 50 -- 80
8 S)

19
 Planning/Scope of SI

Embankments: ASCE recommends

 1.5 to 2 times the height of embankments
 Depth should be sufficient to possible shear failure and probable
settlement
Dams, depth should be such to explore all stata through which piping
and seepage may occur and some borings up to rock bed (min 3 m
into the rock)
Roads: Exploration up to 2-3 m below the formation level

Runways: 5-6 m below the formation level

Pipe Lines: Depth below invert level of the order of 1.5-2 m may be
sufficient

Tunnels: Relatively to deeper depth as the level of the tunnel may

be lowered. 20
Example of Planning SI program

21
Economics of SI

22
 Exploration Methods
1) Probing/Sounding Methods:
 These methods have been developed for determining the consistency
of cohesive soils or relative density of cohesionless deposits. In this
method a rod encased in a sleeve is forced into the soil and the resistance
to penetration or with drawl is observed. Variations in the resistance
shows dissimilar soil layers and the numerical values of the resistance
permits an estimate of some of the physical properties of the strata.
 The advantages and limitations of soil sounding methods are as
follows.
 Soundings are generally considerably faster and cheaper than boring.
 In boring a thin weak soil strata may pass unnoticed but sounding
indicates its presence.
 In erratic soil conditions soundings can be used between two borings.
 Sounding gives an idea about the consistency of cohesive soils and
degree of compactness of cohesionless soils. Hence where undisturbed
sample is difficult to collect or is expensive sounding may be used as a
substitute.
 Bearing capacity of soil can be estimated by sounding.
 Soundings alone cannot provide sufficient data for the final design of
important or unusual foundations and earth structures.
 Sounding gives no idea about the settlement characteristics of the soil
in question.
 Sounding gives misleading results when soil contains stones/boulders
etc.
 As a general rule, dynamic penetration tests are performed in cohesionless
soils and static tests in cohesive materials.
23
 DIRECT METHODS OF SI:

a. Direct method b. Indirect Method

1-A: DYNAMIC PENETRATION OF RODS.

 The oldest and simplest form of soils sounding consists in
driving a rod into the ground by repeated blows of a hammer.
 The penetration of the rod for a given number of blows with a
hammer of constant weight and drop is recorded or the
number of blows required per foot penetration of the rod is
noted. These information’s are used as an index of the
penetration foundation experience.
 Skin friction is also acting on the rod and is cumulative with
depth, hence the penetration resistance does not directly
represent the strength or density of the strata encountered.
 {SKIN FRICTION = Perimeter x Length x
Average
 shear resistance per unit area developed between the soil and
the rod

24
 DIRECT METHODS:
1-B: PENETRATION BY ROTATION [SWEDISH METHODS]
 A sounding rod is forced into the soil partly by static load
and partly by rotation of the rod.
 The rod is provided with a screw point with a diameter about
50 percent greater than that of the rod. The penetration is first
recorded for successive static loads of 5,15,25,75 and 100 kg.
The rod with a final static load of 100 kg is then rotated and
the penetration is observed for each 25 half turns. A diagram
of the variation of this penetration with depth is then plotted
and compared with similar diagrams obtained for the same
soil for which the bearing capacity has been determined by
other means.
 This method is relatively fast and inexpensive, even when
compared with other sounding methods, but it is not suitable
for exploration of coarse and gravelly soils or very compact or
hard soils. Neither does the method furnish adequate details
on the soil profile when soils are so soft that they are
penetrated by the sounding rod without rotating it but simply
by placing the above mentioned static loads on the self-
locking clamp.

25
 DIRECT METHODS:

1-C: CONE PENETROMETER

 A cone penetrometer is used for shallow
explorations in relatively soft deposits and
determination of the capacity of such deposits
to sustain various types of loads and traffic. At
depths at which it is desired to determine the
penetration resistance, the pressure on the
handle is slowly increased until there is a
perceptible but very slow and uniform
downward movement of the cone. The
corresponding pressure is measured by means
of the proving ring.

26
 DIRECT METHODS:

2. Test Pits (Open pit exploration):

Test pits permit a direct inspection of the soil
strata in place, and taking of adequate
disturbed and undisturbed soil samples.
 Test pits are the most satisfactory method of
disclosing the soil strata conditions. Also it is
possible to take even undisturbed samples of
sands by this method. The cost of test pit
increases rapidly with depth; they are
uneconomical beyond a depth of 12 ft. They
are practically impractical when groundwater
is to be handled.

27
Merits & Demerits of Test Pits

28
 DIRECT METHODS:

3. Auger Borings: Auger borings are classified

soil exploration methods. These are made in
cohesive soil or in non-cohesive soils above
groundwater table. The soil samples so
obtained by auger borings are badly disturbed.
However, the auger may also be used for
advancing the hole down to the point where
undisturbed soil samples are to be taken.
Different types of augers are used for auger
boring as shown in fig. (helical auger, post-
hole auger etc.). Hand-operated augers can be
used to reach depth up to 20 ft. to 30 ft. For
greater depths motor-driven auger can be
used. The size of boring varies from 2 in. to 12
in.

29
Boring tools
Auger boring Power drills

30
Merits & Demerits of Auger Boring

31
 DIRECT METHODS:
5. Percussion Boring
 Also known as cable tool drilling either manual or powered
 a. Light percussion b. Heavy percussion
6. Wash Boring:
Wash boring is one of the most common methods of advancing
a hole into the ground. In this method a hole is started by
driving a casing to a depth of 5 ft. to 10 ft. casing is simply a
pipe, which supports the hole, preventing it from caving in.
The casing is cleaned out by means of a chopping bit
fastened to the lower end of the drilling rod, if water is
pumped through the drilling rod and exists at high velocity
through holes in the bit. The water rises between the casing
and drill rod, carrying suspended soil particles, and
overflows at the top of the casing through “T” connection
into a container, from which the effluent is reticulated back
through the drill rod. The hole is advanced by raising,
rotating, and dropping the bit on to the soil at the bottom of
the hole. Drill rods, and if necessary caring are added as the
depth of the boring increases. This method is quite rapid for
advancing holes in all but the very hard soil strata.
32
Boring tools

33
Merits & Demerits of Percussion Boring

34
 DIRECT METHODS:

7. ROTARY DRILL:
Rotary drill is another method of advancing test holes.
This method uses rotation of the drill bit with the
simultaneous application of pressure to advance the
hole. Rotary drilling is the most rapid method of
advancing holes in the rock unless it is badly fissured;
however, it can also be used for any other type of soil. If
this is applied in soils when the sides of the hole tend to
cave in, a drilling mud may be used. The drilling mud is
usually a water solution of a thixotropic clay
(Bentonite), with or without other admixtures, which is
forced into the sides of the hole by the rotary drill. This
provides sufficient strength to the soil so that it
maintains the hole. The mud also tends to seal off the
water flow into the hole from the permeable water
bearing strata.

35
Schematic Sketch of Rotary Boring

36
Merits & Demerits of Rotary Boring

37
SOIL BORING

38
Boring tools
Auger boring Power drills

39
Boring tools

40
Schematic Sketch

41
Boring
tools

42
 Preparation of Boring Logs
1. Name and address of the drilling company
2. Driller’s name
3. Job description and number
4. Number, type, and location of boring
5. Date of boring
6. Subsurface stratification, which can he obtained by visual
observation of the soil brought out by auger, split-spoon sampler,
and thin-walled Shelby tube sampler
7. Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing and mud
losses, and so on
8. Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT
9. Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected
10. In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for each run,
the actual length of coring, length of core recovery, and ROD

43
44
SOIL SAMPLING
Two types of soil samples can be obtained during
sampling disturbed and undisturbed. The most
important engineering properties required for
foundation design are strength, compressibility, and
permeability. Reasonably good estimates of these
properties for cohesive soils can be made by
laboratory tests on undisturbed samples which can
be obtained with moderate difficulty. It is nearly
impossible to obtain a truly undisturbed sample of
soil; so in general usage the term "undisturbed"
means a sample where some precautions have been
taken to minimize disturbance or remolding effects.
In this context, the quality of an "undisturbed"
sample varies widely between soil laboratories.
45
Disturbed vs Undisturbed
Good quality samples necessary.

AAR<10%
R<10%
O.D.2  I .D.2
AR  2
100 (%)
soil I .D.
area
arearatio
ratio

sampling tube

Thicker the wall, greater the disturbance.

46
Disturbed vs Undisturbed

47
Common Sampling Methods

48
 ROCK SAMPLING
 Rock cores are necessary if the
soundness of the rock is to be
established.
 small cores tend to break up
inside the drill barrel.
 Larger cores also have a
tendency to break up (rotate
inside the barrel and degrade),
especially if the rock is soft or
fissured.
49
Rock coring

50
ROCK SAMPLING - Definition

51
 Rock Core Drilling
 Done with either
tungsten carbide or
diamond core bits
 Use a double or triple
tube core barrel when
sampling weathered or
fractured rock
 Used to determine Rock
Quality Designation
core barrel 52
Rock Quality Designation RQD

53
Rock Quality Designation
RQD
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is defined as the percentage of rock
cores that have length equal or greater than 10 cm over the total drill
length.

54
Example on Core Recovery & RQD
 Core run of 150 cm
 Total core recovery
= 125 cm
 Core recovery ratio =
125/150 = 83%
 On modified basis,
95 cm are counted
RQD = 95/150=63 %

55
GROUND WATER TABLE LEVEL
Groundwater conditions and the potential for
groundwater seepage are fundamental
factors in virtually all geotechnical analyses
and design studies. Accordingly, the
evaluation of groundwater conditions is a
basic element of almost all geotechnical
investigation programs. Groundwater
investigations are of two types as follows:
 Determination of groundwater levels and
pressures.
 Measurement of the permeability of the
subsurface materials.
56
FIELD STRENGTH TESTS
The following are the major field tests for
determining the soil strength:
1. Vane shear test (VST).
2. Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
3. Cone Penetration Test (CPT).
4. The Borehole Shear Test (BST).
5. The Flat Dilatometer Test (DMT).
6. The Pressure-meter Test (PMT).
7. The Plate Load Test (PLT).
57
FIELD STRENGTH TESTS

58
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

59
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

60
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

61
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Corrections are normally applied to the SPT
blow count to account for differences in:
• energy imparted during the test (60%
hammer efficiency)
• the stress level at the test depth
The following equation is used to compensate
for the testing factors (Skempton, 1986):

62
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

63
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

64
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

65
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

66
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

67
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

68
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

69
The Plate Load Test (PLT)

70
The Plate Load Test (PLT)

71
The Plate Load Test (PLT)

72
The Plate Load Test (PLT)
Scale Effect in Foundation Design

73
Geotechnical Design Reports
 At the end of all subsoil exploration programs, the
soil and/or rock specimens collected from the field
are subjected to visual observation and appropriate
laboratory testing. After the compilation of all of the
required information, a soil exploration report is
prepared for the use of the design office and for
reference during future construction work. Although
the details and sequence of information in the report
may vary to some degree is depending on the
structure under consideration and the person
compiling the report.

74
 Subsoil Exploration Report
1. A description of the scope of the investigation
2. A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil exploration has
been conducted
3. A description of the location of the site, including any structures nearby,
drainage conditions, the nature of vegetation on the site and surrounding
it, and any other features unique to the site
4. A description of the geological setting of the site
5. Details of the field exploration—that is, number of borings, depths of
borings, types of borings involved, and so on
6. A general description of the subsoil conditions, as determined from soil
specimens and from related laboratory tests, standard penetration
resistance and cone penetration resistance, and soon
7. A description of the water-table conditions
8. Re commendations regarding the foundation, including the type of
foundation recommended, the allowable hearing pressure, and any special
construction procedure that may he needed; alternative foundation design
procedures should also be discussed in this portion of the report
9. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
75
Subsoil Exploration Report
The following graphical presentations should he
attached to the report:
1. A site location map
2. A plan view of the location of the borings
with respect to the proposed structures and
those nearby
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special graphical presentations

76
Example Table
of Contents for
a Geotechnical
Investigation
(Data) Report

77