Chapter 16

The Reproductive System

The Reproductive System

• Gonads—primary sex organs
• Testes in males
• Ovaries in females
• Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and secrete hormones
• Sperm—male gametes
• Ova (eggs)—female gametes

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

• Testes
• Duct system
• Epididymis
• Ductus (vas) deferens
• Urethra

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

• Accessory organs
• Seminal glands (vesicles)
• Prostate
• Bulbourethral glands
• External genitalia
• Penis
• Scrotum

Testes
• Each testis is connected to the trunk via the spermatic cord, which houses:
• Blood vessels
• Nerves
• Ductus deferens
• Coverings of the testes
• Tunica albuginea—capsule that surrounds each testis
• Septa—extensions of the capsule that extend into the testis and divide it into
lobules

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Testes
• Each lobule contains one to four seminiferous tubules
• Tightly coiled structures
• Function as sperm-forming factories
• Empty sperm into the rete testis
• Sperm travels from the rete testis to the epididymis
• Interstitial cells in the seminiferous tubules produce androgens such as testosterone

Duct System
• The duct system transports sperm from the body and includes:
• Epididymis
• Ductus deferens
• Urethra

Duct System
• Epididymis
• Highly convoluted tube 6 m (20 ft) long
• Found along the posterior lateral side of the testis
• First part of the male duct system
• Temporary storage site for immature sperm
• Sperm mature as they journey through the epididymis
• During ejaculation, sperm are propelled to the ductus deferens

Duct System
• Ductus (vas) deferens
• Runs from the epididymis via the spermatic cord through the inguinal canal
and arches over the urinary bladder
• Ampulla—end of the ductus deferens, which empties into the
ejaculatory duct
• Ejaculatory duct—passes through the prostate to merge with the
urethra
• Moves sperm by peristalsis into the urethra

Duct System
• Ductus (vas) deferens (continued)
• Ejaculation—smooth muscle in the walls of the ductus deferens create
peristaltic waves to squeeze sperm forward
• Vasectomy—cutting of the ductus deferens at the level of the testes prevents
transportation of sperm (form of birth control)

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Duct System
• Urethra
• Extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip of the penis
• Carries both urine and sperm
• Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct

Duct System
• Urethra regions
1. Prostatic urethra—surrounded by prostate gland
2. Membranous urethra—prostatic urethra to penis
3. Spongy (penile) urethra—runs the length of the penis to the external urethral
orifice
• Ejaculation causes the internal urethra sphincter to close
• Prevents urine from passing into the urethra
• Prevents sperm from entering the urinary bladder

Accessory Glands and Semen

• Seminal vesicles
• Prostate
• Bulbourethral glands

Accessory Glands and Semen

• Seminal vesicles
• Located at the base of the bladder
• Produce a thick, yellowish secretion (60% of semen) that contains:
• Fructose (sugar)
• Vitamin C
• Prostaglandins
• Other substances that nourish and activate sperm
• Duct of each seminal vesicle joins that of the ductus deferens on each side to
form the ejaculatory duct

Accessory Glands and Semen

• Prostate
• Encircles the upper (prostatic) part of the urethra
• Secretes a milky fluid
• Helps to activate sperm
• Fluid enters the urethra through several small ducts

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Accessory Glands and Semen
• Bulbourethral glands
• Pea-sized glands inferior to the prostate
• Produce a thick, clear mucus
• Mucus cleanses the spongy (penile) urethra of acidic urine prior to
ejaculation
• Mucus serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse

Accessory Glands and Semen

• Semen
• Milky white mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions
• Components of accessory gland secretions
• Liquid portion acts as a transport medium to dilute sperm
• Sperm are streamlined cellular “tadpoles”
• Fructose provides energy for sperm cells
• Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic environment of vagina
• Semen inhibits bacteria

External Genitalia
• Scrotum
• Penis

External Genitalia
• Scrotum
• Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen that houses the testes
• Viable sperm cannot be produced at normal body temperature
• Maintains testes at 3°C lower than normal body temperature

External Genitalia
• Penis
• Male organ of copulation that delivers sperm into the female reproductive
tract
• Regions of the penis
• Shaft
• Glans penis (enlarged tip)
• Prepuce (foreskin)
• Folded cuff of skin around proximal end
• Often removed by circumcision

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External Genitalia
• Penis (continued)
• Internally there are three areas of spongy erectile tissue around the urethra
• Erections occur when this erectile tissue fills with blood during sexual
excitement

Male Reproductive Functions

• Chief roles of the male in the reproductive process
• Produce sperm
• Produce a hormone, testosterone

Spermatogenesis
• Sperm production
• Begins at puberty and continues throughout life
• Millions of sperm are made every day
• Sperm are formed in the seminiferous tubules of the testis
• Spermatogonia (primitive stem cells) begin the process by dividing rapidly
• During puberty, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted in increasing
amounts

Spermatogenesis
• Each division of a spermatogonium stem cell produces:
• Type A daughter cell, a stem cell, that continues the stem cell population
• Type B daughter cell, which becomes a primary spermatocyte, destined to
undergo meiosis and form four sperm

Spermatogenesis
• Meiosis
• Special type of nuclear division that differs from mitosis
• Occurs in the gonads
• Includes two successive divisions of the nucleus (meiosis I and II)
• Results in four daughter cells (gametes)

Spermatogenesis
• Gametes are spermatids with 23 chromosomes
• 23 chromosomes are half the usual 46 found in other body cells
• 23 is known as the haploid number (n)—half the genetic material as other
body cells
• Union of a sperm (23 chromosomes, n) with an egg (23 chromosomes, n) creates a
zygote (2n, or 46 chromosomes)

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Spermatogenesis
• Spermiogenesis
• Spermatids are nonmotile and not functional as sperm
• A streamlining process is needed to strip excess cytoplasm from a spermatid
and modify it into a sperm
• A sperm has three regions: head, midpiece, tail
• Acrosome sits anterior to the sperm head (nucleus)
• The entire process of spermatogenesis, including spermiogenesis, takes 64
to 72 days

Testosterone Production
• During puberty:
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) begins prodding seminiferous tubules to
produce sperm
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) begins activating the interstitial cells to produce
testosterone

Testosterone Production
• Testosterone
• Most important hormonal product of the testes
• Stimulates reproductive organ development
• Underlies sex drive
• Causes secondary sex characteristics
• Deepening of voice
• Increased hair growth
• Enlargement of skeletal muscles
• Increased bone growth and density

Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System

• Ovaries
• Duct system
• Uterine (fallopian) tubes
• Uterus
• Vagina
• External genitalia

Ovaries
• Ovaries
• Produce eggs (ova) and hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
• Each ovary houses ovarian follicles consisting of:
• Oocyte (immature egg)
• Follicle cells—layers of different cells that surround the oocyte

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Ovaries
• Ovarian follicles
• Primary follicle—contains an immature oocyte
• Vesicular (Graafian) follicle—growing follicle with a maturing oocyte
• Ovulation—the follicle ruptures when the egg is mature and ready to be
ejected from the ovary; occurs about every 28 days
• The ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus luteum

Ovaries
• Ovary support
• Suspensory ligaments secure the ovaries to the lateral walls of the pelvis
• Ovarian ligaments anchor ovaries to the uterus medially
• Broad ligaments, a fold of peritoneum, enclose and hold the ovaries in place

Duct System
• Uterine (fallopian) tubes
• Uterus
• Vagina

Duct System
• Uterine (fallopian) tubes (continued)
• Form the initial part of the duct system
• Receive the ovulated oocyte from the ovaries
• Provide a site for fertilization
• Empty into the uterus
• Little or no contact between ovaries and uterine tubes
• Supported and enclosed by the broad ligament

Duct System
• Uterine (fallopian) tube structure
• Infundibulum
• Distal, funnel-shaped end
• Fimbriae
• Fingerlike projections of the infundibulum
• Receive the oocyte from the ovary
• Cilia located inside the uterine tube transport the oocyte

Duct System
• Uterus
• Situated between the urinary bladder and rectum
• Size and shape of a pear, in a woman who has never been pregnant
• Receives, retains, nourishes a fertilized egg

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Duct System
• Uterine support
• Broad ligament suspends the uterus in the pelvis
• Round ligament anchors the uterus anteriorly
• Uterosacral ligament anchors the uterus posteriorly

Duct System
• Regions of the uterus
• Body—main portion
• Fundus—superior rounded region above where uterine tube enters
• Cervix—narrow outlet that protrudes into the vagina

Duct System
• Layers of the uterus
• Endometrium
• Inner layer (mucosa)
• Site of implantation of a fertilized egg
• Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (menstruation or menses)
• Myometrium is the middle layer of smooth muscle that contracts during labor
• Perimetrium (visceral peritoneum) is the outermost serous layer of the uterus

Duct System
• Vagina
• Passageway that extends from cervix to exterior of body and is located
between urinary bladder and rectum
• Serves as the canal that allows a baby or menstrual flow to leave the body
• Female organ of copulation
• Receives the penis during sexual intercourse
• Hymen—partially closes the vagina until it is ruptured

External Genitalia and Female Perineum

• The female external genitalia, or vulva, includes:
• Mons pubis
• Labia
• Clitoris
• Urethral orifice
• Vaginal orifice
• Greater vestibular glands

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External Genitalia and Female Perineum
• Mons pubis
• Fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis
• Covered with pubic hair after puberty

External Genitalia and Female Perineum

• Labia—skin folds
• Labia majora
• Hair-covered skin folds
• Enclose the labia minora
• Also encloses the vestibule
• Labia minora—delicate, hair-free folds of skin

External Genitalia and Female Perineum

• Vestibule
• Enclosed by labia majora
• Contains external openings of the urethra and vagina
• Greater vestibular glands
• One is found on each side of the vagina
• Secretions lubricate vagina during intercourse

External Genitalia and Female Perineum

• Clitoris
• Contains erectile tissue
• Corresponds to the male penis
• The clitoris is similar to the penis in that it is:
• Hooded by a prepuce
• Composed of sensitive erectile tissue
• Swollen with blood during sexual excitement
• The clitoris lacks a reproductive duct

External Genitalia and Female Perineum

• Perineum
• Diamond-shaped region between the anterior ends of the labial folds, anus
posteriorly, and ischial tuberosities laterally

Female Reproductive Functions and Cycles

• The total supply of eggs is determined by the time a female is born
• Ability to release eggs begins at puberty with the onset of the menstrual cycle
• Reproductive ability ends at menopause (in female’s fifties)

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Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle
• Oogenesis is the process of producing ova (eggs) in a female
• Oogonia are female stem cells found in a developing fetus
• Oogonia undergo mitosis to produce primary oocytes that are surrounded by
cells that form primary follicles in the ovary

Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle

• Primary oocytes are inactive until puberty
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) causes some primary follicles to mature each
month
• Cyclic monthly changes constitute the ovarian cycle

Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle

• Meiosis starts inside maturing follicle
• First meiotic division produces a larger secondary oocyte and a smaller first
polar body
• A vesicular follicle contains a secondary oocyte (maturation from a primary
follicle takes about 14 days)
• Ovulation of a secondary oocyte occurs with the release of luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Secondary oocyte is released and surrounded by a corona radiata

Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle

• Meiosis is completed after ovulation only if sperm penetrates the oocyte
• Ovum is produced
• Two additional polar bodies are produced
• Once ovum is formed, the 23 chromosomes can be combined with the 23
chromosomes of the sperm to form the fertilized egg (zygote)
• If the secondary oocyte is not penetrated by a sperm, it dies and does not complete
meiosis to form an ovum

Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle

• Meiosis
• Males—produces four functional sperm
• Females—produces one functional ovum and three tiny polar bodies
• Sex cell size and structure
• Sperm are tiny, motile, and equipped with nutrients in seminal fluid
• Egg is large, is nonmotile, and has nutrient reserves to nourish the embryo
until implantation

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Hormone Production by the Ovaries
• Estrogens are produced by follicle cells
• Cause secondary sex characteristics
• Enlargement of accessory organs of the female reproductive system
• Development of breasts
• Appearance of axillary and pubic hair
• Increase in fat beneath the skin, particularly in hips and breasts
• Widening and lightening of the pelvis
• Onset of menses (menstrual cycle)

Hormone Production by the Ovaries

• Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum
• Production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
• Does not contribute to the appearance of secondary sex characteristics
• Other major effects
• Helps maintain pregnancy
• Prepares the breasts for milk production

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

• Cyclic changes of the endometrium, about 28 days in length
• Regulated by cyclic production of estrogens and progesterone by the ovaries
• FSH and LH, from the anterior pituitary, regulate the production of estrogens and
progesterone by the ovaries
• Ovulation typically occurs about midway through cycle, on day 14

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

• Stages of the menstrual cycle
• Menstrual phase
• Proliferative stage
• Secretory stage

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

• Days 1–5: menstrual phase
• Functional layer of the endometrium is sloughed
• Bleeding occurs for 3 to 5 days
• Ovarian hormones are at their lowest levels
• By day 5, growing ovarian follicles are producing more estrogen

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Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
• Days 6–14: proliferative stage
• Regeneration of functional layer of the endometrium
• Endometrium is repaired, thickens, and becomes well vascularized
• Estrogen levels rise
• Ovulation occurs in the ovary at the end of this stage

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

• Days 15–28: secretory phase
• Levels of progesterone rise and increase the blood supply to the
endometrium, which becomes more vascular
• Endometrium increases in size and readies for implantation

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

• Days 15–28: secretory phase (continued)
• If fertilization does occur:
• Embryo produces a hormone that causes the corpus luteum to
continue producing its hormones
• If fertilization does NOT occur:
• Corpus luteum degenerates as LH blood levels decline
• The phases are repeated about every 28 days

Mammary Glands
• Present in both sexes, but function only in females
• Modified sweat glands
• Function is to produce milk to nourish a newborn
• Stimulated by sex hormones (mostly estrogens) to increase in size

Mammary Glands
• Parts of the mammary gland
• Areola—central pigmented area
• Nipple—protruding central area of areola
• Lobes—internal structures that radiate around nipple
• Lobules—located within each lobe and contain clusters of alveolar glands
• Alveolar glands—produce milk when a woman is lactating (producing milk)
• Lactiferous ducts—connect alveolar glands to nipple
• Lactiferous sinus—dilated portion where milk accumulates

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Mammography
• Mammography is X-ray examination that detects breast cancers too small to feel
• American Cancer Society recommends mammography annually for women between
45 and 54 years old and every 2 years thereafter if the results are normal
• Breast cancer is often signaled by a change in skin texture, puckering, or leakage
from the nipple

Pregnancy and Embryonic Development

• Pregnancy—time from fertilization until infant is born
• Conceptus—developing offspring
• Embryo—period of time from fertilization until week 8
• Fetus—week 9 until birth
• Gestation period—from date of last period until birth (approximately 280 days)

Accomplishing Fertilization
• An oocyte is viable up to 24 hours after ovulation
• Sperm are viable up to 48 hours after ejaculation
• For fertilization to occur, sexual intercourse must occur no more than 2 days
before ovulation and no later than 24 hours after
• Sperm cells must make their way to the uterine tube for fertilization to be possible
• Sperm cells are attracted to the oocyte by chemicals

Accomplishing Fertilization
• When sperm reach the oocyte:
• Enzymes break down the follicle cells of the corona radiata around the oocyte
• Sperm undergo an acrosomal reaction
• Membrane receptors on the oocyte pull in the head of the first sperm cell to
make contact
• Oocyte undergoes second meiotic division to produce an ovum and a polar
body

Accomplishing Fertilization
• Fertilization occurs when the genetic material of a sperm combines with that of an
oocyte

Events of Embryonic & Fetal Development

• Zygote
• First cell of a new individual
• The zygote is the result of the fusion of DNA from sperm and egg
• The zygote begins rapid mitotic cell divisions, known as cleavage, 24 hours

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 after fertilization
• The zygote journeys down the uterine tube, moving toward the uterus

Events of Embryonic & Fetal Development

• Cleavage
• Rapid series of mitotic divisions that begins with the zygote
• 3 days after ovulation, the embryo reaches the uterus and floats as a morula,
a ball of 16 cells

Events of Embryonic & Fetal Development

• Blastocyst (chorionic vesicle)
• Hollow, ball-like structure of 100 cells or more
• Secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to induce the corpus luteum to
continue producing hormones, preventing menses, until the placenta
assumes its role

Events of Embryonic & Fetal Development

• Functional areas of the blastocyst
1. Trophoblast—large fluid-filled sphere
2. Inner cell mass—cluster of cells to one side
• By day 7 after ovulation, the blastocyst has attached to the endometrium

Events of Embryonic & Fetal Development

• Inner cell mass of blastocyst develops into:
• Primary germ layers
• Ectoderm—outside layer, which gives rise to nervous system and
epidermis of skin
• Endoderm—inside layer, which forms mucosae and associated glands
• Mesoderm—middle layer, which gives rise to everything else

Events of Embryonic & Fetal Development

• After implantation, the trophoblast of the blastocyst develops chorionic villi
(projections)
• Chorionic villi combine with tissues of the uterus to form the placenta
• Once the placenta has formed, the amnion is attached to the placenta by an
umbilical cord
• Amnion is a fluid-filled sac that surrounds the embryo
• Umbilical cord is a blood vessel–containing stalk of tissue

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Events of Embryonic & Fetal Development
• Placenta
• Forms a barrier between mother and embryo (blood is not exchanged)
• Delivers nutrients and oxygen
• Removes wastes from embryonic blood
• Becomes an endocrine organ and takes over for the corpus luteum (by end of
second month); produces estrogen, progesterone, and other hormones that
maintain pregnancy

Events of Embryonic & Fetal Development

• All organ systems are formed by the end of the eighth week
• Activities of the fetus are growth and organ specialization
• The fetal stage is one of tremendous growth and change in appearance
• Fetal changes are summarized in Table 16.1

Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother

• Pregnancy—period from conception until birth
• Anatomical changes
• Enlargement of the uterus
• Accentuated lumbar curvature (lordosis)
• Relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis due to production of
the hormone relaxin

Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother

• Physiological changes
• Gastrointestinal system
• Morning sickness is common and is due to elevated progesterone and
estrogens
• Heartburn is common because of organ crowding by the fetus
• Constipation is caused by declining motility of the digestive tract

Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother

• Physiological changes (continued)
• Urinary system
• Kidneys have additional burden and produce more urine
• The uterus compresses the bladder, causing stress incontinence

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Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother
• Physiological changes (continued)
• Respiratory system
• Nasal mucosa becomes congested and swollen
• Vital capacity and respiratory rate increase
• Dyspnea (difficult breathing) occurs during later stages of pregnancy

Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother

• Physiological changes (continued)
• Cardiovascular system
• Blood volume increases by 25% to 40%
• Blood pressure and pulse increase
• Varicose veins are common

Childbirth (Parturition)
• Initiation of labor
• Labor—the series of events that expel the infant from the uterus
• Rhythmic, expulsive contractions
• Operates by the positive feedback mechanism
• False labor—Braxton Hicks contractions are weak, irregular uterine
contractions

Childbirth (Parturition)
• Initiation of labor (continued)
• Estrogen levels rise
• Uterine contractions begin
• The placenta releases prostaglandins
• Oxytocin is released by the pituitary
• Combined effects of rising levels of hormones—oxytocin and prostaglandins
—initiates contractions and forces the baby deeper into the mother’s pelvis

Stages of Labor
• Dilation
• Cervix becomes dilated
• Full dilation is 10 cm
• Uterine contractions begin and increase
• Cervix softens and effaces (thins)
• The amnion ruptures (“breaking the water”)
• Longest stage, at 6 to 12 hours

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Stages of Labor
• Expulsion
• Infant passes through the cervix and vagina
• Can last as long as 2 hours, but typically is 50 minutes in the first birth and 20
minutes in subsequent births
• Normal delivery is head-first (vertex position)
• Breech presentation is buttocks-first

Stages of Labor
• Placental stage
• Delivery of the placenta
• Usually accomplished within 15 minutes after birth of infant
• Afterbirth—placenta and attached fetal membranes
• All placental fragments should be removed to avoid postpartum bleeding

Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive System

• Gender is determined at fertilization
• Males have XY sex chromosomes
• Females have XX sex chromosomes
• Reproductive system structures of males and females are identical during early
development
• Gonads do not begin to form until the eighth week
• The presence or absence of testosterone determines whether male or female
accessory reproductive organs will form

Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive System

• The reproductive system is inactive during childhood
• Reproductive system organs do not function for childbearing until puberty
• Puberty usually begins between ages 10 and 15

Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive System

• Males
• Enlargement of testes and scrotum signals onset of puberty (often around
age 13)
• Females
• Budding breasts signal puberty (often around age 11)
• Menarche—first menstrual period (usually occurs about 2 years later)

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Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive System
• Menopause—a whole year has passed without menstruation
• Ovaries stop functioning as endocrine organs
• Childbearing ability ends
• Hot flashes and mood changes may occur
• There is a no equivalent of menopause in males, but there is a steady decline in
testosterone

A Closer Look: Contraception

• Contraception—birth control
• Birth control pill—most-used contraceptive
• Relatively constant supply of ovarian hormones from pill is similar to
pregnancy
• Ovarian follicles do not mature, ovulation ceases, menstrual flow is reduced

A Closer Look: Contraception

• Morning-after pill (MAP)
• Taken within 3 days of unprotected intercourse
• Disrupts normal hormonal signals to the point that fertilization is prevented
• Other hormonal birth control devices cause cervical mucus to thicken
• Minipill (tablet)
• Norplant (rods placed under the skin)

A Closer Look: Contraception

• Intrauterine device (IUD)
• Plastic or metal device inserted into uterus
• Prevents implantation of fertilized egg
• Sterilization
• Tubal ligation (females)—cut or cauterize uterine tubes
• Vasectomy (males)—cut or cauterize the ductus deferens

A Closer Look: Contraception

• Coitus interruptus—withdrawal of penis prior to ejaculation
• Rhythm (fertility awareness)—avoid intercourse during period of ovulation or fertility
• Record daily basal temperature (body temperature rises after ovulation)
• Record changes in pattern of cervical mucus

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A Closer Look: Contraception
• Barrier methods
• Diaphragms
• Cervical caps
• Condoms
• Spermicidal foams
• Gels
• Sponges

A Closer Look: Contraception

• Abortion—termination of pregnancy
• Miscarriage—spontaneous abortion is common and frequently occurs before a
woman knows she is pregnant
• RU486, or “abortion pill”—induces miscarriage during first 7 weeks of pregnancy

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