Chapter 16

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Summary
1. The advantages of improving energy efficiency include benefits to the environment, people, and the economy
through prolonged fossil fuel supplies, reduced oil imports, very high net energy yield, low cost reduction of
pollution, and improved local economies.

2. The advantages of solar energy include reduction of air pollution, reduction of dependence on oil, and low land
use. Disadvantages include production of photocells results in release of toxic chemicals, life of systems is
short, need backup systems, and high cost.

3. The advantages of hydropower include high net energy yield, low cost electricity, long life span, no carbon
dioxide emissions during operation, flood control below dam, water for irrigation, and reservoir development.
Disadvantages include high construction cost, high environmental impact, high carbon dioxide emissions from
biomass decay, flooding of natural areas, conversion of land habitats to lake habitats, danger of dam
collapsing, people relocation, limits fish populations below dam, and decrease flow of silt.

4. The advantages of wind power include high net energy yield and efficiency, low cost and environmental
impact, no carbon dioxide emissions, and quick construction. Disadvantages include need for winds and
backup systems, high land use, visual and noise pollution, interfering with bird migrations.

5. The advantages of biomass include large potential supplies, moderate costs, no net carbon increase, and use of
agricultural, timber, and urban wastes. Disadvantages include nonrenewable resource if not harvested
sustainably, moderate to high environmental impact, low photosynthetic efficiency, soil erosion, water
pollution, and loss of wildlife.

6. The advantages of geothermal energy include very high efficiency, low carbon dioxide emissions, low cost and
land use, low land disturbance, and moderate environmental impact. Disadvantages include scarcity of suitable
sites, potential depletion, moderate to high air pollution, noise and odor, and high cost.

7. The advantages of hydrogen gas include the fact that it can be produced from water, the low environmental
impact, no carbon dioxide emission, competitive price, ease of storage, safety, and high efficiency.
Disadvantages include energy needed to produce the fuel, negative energy yield, nonrenewable, high cost, and
no fuel distribution system exists.

8. The advantages of using smaller, decentralized micropower sources include size, fast production and
installation, high energy efficiency, low or no CO2 emissions, low air pollution, easy repair, reliable, increased
national security, and easily financed.

9. We can improve energy efficiency by increasing fuel efficiency standards, large tax credits for purchasing
energy efficient cars, houses, and appliances, encouraging independent energy production, and increasing
research and development.

Key Questions and Concepts

16-1 Why Is Energy Efficiency an Important Energy Resource?
CORE CASE STUDY: Amory Lovins founded the Rocky Mountain Institute to consult on issues of energy
and resource efficiency. The headquarters is located in an ultra-efficient building in Snowmass, Colorado that

212 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

 requires very little energy beyond what is derived from the sun. Lovins is a leader in the transition to a more
energy efficient world.
A. Energy saved through efficiency reduces the need for the production of energy from another source. Energy
efficiency is a measure of the useful energy produced compared to the energy that is converted to low-
quality heat energy. About 84% of all commercial energy used in the U.S. is wasted. About 41% is wasted
because of the degradation of energy quality imposed by the second law of thermodynamics. About 43% of
the energy used in the United States is unnecessarily wasted by such things as motor vehicles, furnaces, and
living and working in leaky, poorly designed buildings. Since the 1980s the U.S. has reduced the amount of
energy used per person, but unnecessary energy waste still costs the U.S. about $570,000 per minute.

B. Much energy is wasted because of widespread reliance on incandescent light bulbs, internal combustion
engines, nuclear power plants, and coal-fired power plants. .

16-2 How Can We Cut Energy Waste?

A. Industry accounts for 30% of global energy consumption.
B. Ways to save money and energy in industry include:
1. Cogeneration using a combined heat and power system.
2. Replacing energy wasting electric motors.
3. Recycling materials
4. Replacing low-efficiency incandescent lighting.
CASE STUDY: A smart grid is an energy efficient, high-voltage power grid with very efficient transmission
lines that is responsive to changes in supply and demand. China is investing heavily in the technology and
may become the leader. Energy experts place high priority o converting outdated grids to smart grids.
C. Transportation accounts for 28% of energy consumption in the United States.
1. Between 1973 and 1985, fuel efficiency increased because of government-mandated corporate average
fuel economy standards. Since 1985 fuel economy has gone down.
2. Ways to save energy in transportation include offering incentives to purchase more efficient vehicles,
shifting to electric rail systems, and encouraging bicycle use.
D. More energy efficient vehicles are now being produced and more are planned.
1. These include hybrids, plug-in hybrids, energy efficient diesels, fuel cell technology, and vehicles made
of ultra-light and ultra-strong composite materials.
SCIENCE FOCUS: Lithium-ion batteries, commonly found in cell phones and laptops, are the most promising
for electric vehicles. However, there are drawbacks, such as possible risk of fire, and cost. Modern research is
bringing about promising alternatives.
E. We can save energy in buildings by getting heat from the sun, super insulating them, and using plant-
covered green roofs. We can save energy in existing buildings by insulating them, plugging leaks, and
using energy-efficient heating and cooling systems, appliances, and lighting.
F. There are three reasons renewable energy is not more widespread:
1. Since 1950, tax breaks, subsidies, and research funding have been much lower for renewable energy
than for fossil fuels.
2. Subsidies and tax breaks are virtually guaranteed for fossil fuels and nuclear power, but must be
renewed by Congress every few years for renewable energy.
3. The prices we pay for fossil fuels do not include their detrimental effects on the environment.

16-3 What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Solar Energy?
A. Solar has two forms for heating, passive and active. We can heat buildings by orienting them toward the
sun (passive solar heating) or by pumping a liquid such as water through rooftop collectors (active solar
heating). Tradeoffs are listed in figure 16-14.
B. Indirect solar energy (wind) and other natural services can be used to help cool buildings.
C. Large arrays of solar collectors in sunny deserts can produce high-temperature heat to spin turbines and
produce electricity, but costs are high. Solar thermal systems can collect and transform radiant energy to
high-temperature thermal energy (heat), which can be used directly or converted to electricity.
D. Solar can be used to provide electricity. Solar cells convert sunlight to electricity. The primary barrier to
use is the high initial cost (though rapidly falling). Photovoltaic (PV) cells/solar cells convert solar energy
directly into electrical energy. The solar cell is a transparent wafer that is energized by sunlight, which
causes electrons in the semiconductor to flow, creating an electrical current.
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16-4 What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Hydropower?
A. Water flowing in rivers and streams can be trapped in reservoirs behind dams and released as needed to
spin turbines and produce electricity. Hydropower is an indirect form of renewable solar energy.
Hydropower supplied 20% of the world’s electricity in 2007.
B. Pros and cons are given in Figure 16-22. Some expect that the use of large-scale dams will fall over the
next several decades as reservoirs fill with silt and concerns over methane emissions grow. Small-scale
projects eliminate most of the harmful environmental effects of large-scale projects.
C. Ocean tides and waves can also be used to generate electricity. However, the costs are high and there are
few favorable locations for this technology.

16-5 What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Wind Power?
A. Wind power is an indirect form of solar energy.
1. Wind farms are large groups of wind turbines clustered together.
2. Wind is the world’s second fastest growing source of energy, behind solar cells.
3. The world’s largest wind producers are china, USA, Germany, Spain and India.
4. Winds are stronger and steadier over water than land, making offshore wind farms a promising option.
5. Wind power is widely distributed, inexhaustible, carbon-free and pollution-free.
6. Some drawbacks include the remoteness of some of the best wind sites, winds can die down and
necessitate a backup supply of power, and many people complain that wind farms are unsightly and
noisy.
CASE STUDY: The DOE estimates that the Great Plains states could generate the electricity needs of the
lower 48 states with wind power. Offshore wind farms could also supply all of the nation’s electricity. With
expanded and sustained subsidies, wind farms could replace all of the coal-fired plants in the US.

16-6 What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Biomass as an Energy Source?
A. Plant materials and animal wastes can be burned to provide heat or electricity, or can be converted into
gaseous or liquid biofuels. Most biomass is burned directly for heating and cooking and this comprises up
to 95% of the energy used in the poorest developing countries. The general advantages and disadvantages
of burning solid biomass are listed in figure 16-26.
B. Motor vehicles can run on ethanol, biodiesel, and methanol produced from plants and plant wastes. The
biggest producers (Brazil, the U.S., the European Union, and China) plan to double their production of
biofuels by 2020. Biofuels have advantages over gasoline and diesel fuel. Crops that are used to produce
biofuels can be grown almost anywhere. The plants must be produced and harvested sustainably, resulting
in no net increase in carbon dioxide. Biofuels are available now and are easy to store and transport. Rapid
expansion of biofuels may (or may already) reduce the food available for consumption resulting in higher
prices. Extensive use of biofuels could have dramatic impacts on the use of agricultural land.
CASE STUDY: Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils. Production is growing rapidly in the United
States. Some drawbacks include the large areas of land required to grow the crops, loss of topsoil, runoff, and
the large energy requirements which reduce the overall net energy yield.
CASE STUDY: Ethanol can be made from crops as well as wastes from agriculture, forestry, and
municipalities. Brazil and the United States are the largest producers of ethanol. Brazil produces enough to
power 45% of its motor vehicles. Drawbacks to ethanol production include habitat destruction, high energy
input requirements, soil erosion, runoff, and stresses on water supplies. Ethanol demand is also tied to food
prices. An alternative is cellulosic ethanol, made from inedible parts of plants. Switchgrass is one promising
plant for cellulosic ethanol production. However, it is difficult and costly to break down cellulose.
CASE STUDY: Scientists are attempting to use existing or genetically engineered oil-rich algae to produce
biofuels. This requires much less land, water and other resources than other biofuel production methods.
Research is ongoing.

16-7 What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Geothermal Energy?
A. We can use geothermal energy stored in the earth’s mantle to heat and cool buildings and to produce
electricity. Geothermal heat pumps use a pipe and duct system to bring heat stored in underground rocks
and fluids. The earth is used as a heat source in winter and a heat sink in summer. A closed loop of buried
pipes filled with fluid to move heat in or out of the ground for heating/cooling needs. The EPA declared
this the most energy-efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally clean way to heat or cool a building.
214 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
 B. Hydrothermal reservoirs can be tapped into to extract steam or hot water.
C. The US is the world’s largest producer of geothermal energy.
D. Hot, dry rock found about 3 miles underground can also be used to generate electricity.
1. Digging into the earth’s crust is costly, and may trigger small earthquakes.

16-8 What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Hydrogen as an Energy Resource?
A. Hydrogen gas can be produced from water and organic molecules and produces nonpolluting water vapor
when burned. Widespread use of hydrogen as a fuel would eliminate most of the air pollution problems
we face today, but it takes energy and money to produce hydrogen from water and organic compounds. It
is not a source of energy, it is a fuel produced by using energy.
B. Current versions of fuel cells are expensive, but are the best way to use hydrogen to produce electricity.
Whether a hydrogen-based energy system produces less carbon dioxide than a fossil fuel depends on how
the hydrogen is produced. H fuel could be produced by electricity from coal-burning power plants, from
coal itself, or strip it from organic compounds, but this could add more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

16-9 How Can We Make the Transition to a More Sustainable Energy Future?
A. Decisions about energy futures require consideration of long periods of time (decades) and considerable
investment in infrastructure.
B. There are three general conclusions about energy transformations.
1. There will a gradual shift from large, centralized macropower systems to smaller, decentralized
micropower systems.
2. The best alternatives combine improved energy efficiency and the use of natural gas and sustainably
produced biofuels to make the transition to a diverse mix of locally available renewable-energy
resources.
3. Because of their abundance and price, fossil fuels will continue to be used in large quantities, which
means there will remain a need to find ways to reduce the environmental impacts of these fuels.
C. Governments can use a combination of subsidies, tax breaks, rebates, taxes, and public education to
promote or discourage use of various energy alternatives. Economics and politics are the basic strategies to
help stimulate or dampen the short-term and long-term use of a particular energy resource.

Key Terms
active solar heating system geothermal energy
cogeneration passive solar heating system
combined heat and power systems (CHP) photovoltaic (PV) cells
energy efficiency solar cells

Teaching Tips:
Large Lecture Courses:

Start the lecture with a chart showing the price of oil over the last decade and a comparison of total miles driven
in the U.S. First drop since 1979 occurred in 2008. Compare this graph to graphs of the use of wind power, solar
power, and biofuel use. All these graphs will show dramatic recent changes. Now contrast these graphs with a map
of fossil fuel reserves and particularly unconventional and coal reserves in the U.S. This contrast can be used to set
up the basic decision faced by the U.S. in particular in the coming years—to develop national fossil fuel supplies or
to follow a renewable path.

Smaller Lecture Courses:

Instructor's Manual: Chapter 16 215

 Have students read a selection of articles from the NY Times series on Chinese growth and pollution
(http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/08/26/world/asia/choking_on_growth.html). Structure a class around a
discussion of the choices China is facing today compared to the history of U.S. development. Ask questions about
the tradeoffs between economic development and environmental protection (and human health).

Term Paper Research Topics

1. Improving energy efficiency: energy-efficient office buildings; earth-sheltered houses; retrofitting energy-
wasting houses; superinsulation; earth tubes; evaporative coolers; energy-efficient appliances; compact
fluorescent light bulbs; "smart" windows; superinsulated windows; roof-attachable solar cell rolls; the Albers
Technologies air conditioner.

2. Solar technologies: the solar power tower; the Odeillo furnace; solar power satellites; photovoltaics; active
solar systems; passive solar heating; microprocessors to control house temperatures.

3. Biomass: modern wood stoves; bagasse as a biomass fuel; biomass use in the developing countries; gasohol;
methanol; Cellulosic ethanol.

4. Wind: wind farming in California; wind turbine designs.

5. Water power: large-scale hydropower projects in developing countries; rehabilitating small-scale hydroelectric
plants in New England; wave power devices—a comparison of various approaches; ocean thermal energy
conversion; the Bay of Fundy tidal power project.

6. Hydrogen gas: a versatile fuel of the future.

7. Balancing environment and clean energy generation in hydroelectric installations.

8. The role of a decentralized energy supply in the future.

9. Regulation as a tool for energy efficiency. How much should federal, state, and local governments do?

10. Renewable energy potential in the U.S.—what are the limitations to full scale use of renewable energy?

11. Nuclear energy—pros and cons.

Discussion Topics
1. What to do with high level nuclear waste.

2. Restricting energy use in the developing world versus the developed world. What is fair?

3. Who should pay for the use of cleaner energy technologies?

4. Should energy decisions in the U.S. be made at the local, state, or federal level?

5. Should inefficient cars and trucks be banned?

6. LEED building certification—what’s involved and how much does it cost?

7. Should we invest in infrastructure for a hydrogen-based economy?

216 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Activities and Projects
1. Ask an architect or contractor with experience in decentralized use of perpetual and renewable resources to
visit the class and discuss the practical aspects of designing, financing, and installing small-scale solar, wind,
and biogas systems for individual residences, farms, businesses, or factories.

2. Find out if representatives from your local electrical utility offer customers energy audits of their homes. If so,
ask them to come to your class and tell what they look for in homes and what seem to be the most common
ways customers can increase their energy efficiency.

3. Have your students find out if your institution's electrical utility has a conservation program. Does it have
policies that encourage customers to purchase energy-efficient appliances and use energy-efficient light bulbs?

4. Organize a class field trip featuring guided tours of homes and/or other buildings that have solar heating
systems. If possible, include examples of both passive and active systems and an earth-sheltered house.

5. See if there are LEED certified buildings on campus. Have students survey a LEED certified building and
compare it to an older, more inefficient building.

6. Have a class debate on fossil fuel versus renewable sources of future energy.

7. Have a class debate/vote on the use of nuclear power (with a power plant located a thousand miles away and
one located five miles away).

8. Ask students to survey newspapers for one week for articles on energy use and report back to the class about
what they read.

9. Have your students audit energy use and waste on your campus and in activities (such as commuting)
associated with the operation of your campus. Are opportunities to conserve significant amounts of energy
going unrecognized or ignored?

10. As a class project, conduct a survey of students at your school to determine what beliefs and attitudes they
have regarding sustainable-earth energy alternatives that entail a loss of convenience or additional expenditures
of time and money on the part of energy users. Are young people today willing to significantly alter their
lifestyles to use and waste less energy?

News Videos
End for Selling Traditional Bulbs; The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library, 2009; DVD 0538733551
Finding Alternatives to Oil; The Brooks/Cole Environmental Science Video Library, 2009; DVD 0538733551
Miles Per Gallon, Requirements for Automakers; Environmental Science in the Headlines, 2007; DVD; ISBN
0495385433
Philadelphia Eagles Playing for Planet’s Victory; Environmental Science in the Headlines, 2008; DVD; ISBN
0495561908
Planet Earth 2007; Environmental Science in the Headlines, 2007; DVD; ISBN 0495385433

Additional Video Resources

Conservation & Energy Alternatives (Documentary, 2001)

Instructor's Manual: Chapter 16 217

Trouble in the Middle East and growing concerns over global warming cause concern about how America is going
to get powering the future.

E2 Energy (Documentary, 2007)

This PBS series includes 30-minute segments on the people, places and innovations relevant to our energy future.

The End of Suburbia: Oil Depletion and the Collapse of The American Dream (Documentary, 2004)
http://www.endofsuburbia.com/

NOVA: Saved by the Sun (Online)

Main Website: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/solar/program.html
Teacher’s Guide: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/programs/3406_solar.html

Oil on Ice (Documentary, 2004)

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and drilling for oil.
http://www.oilonice.org/

Who Killed The Electric Car (Documentary, 2006)

Documentary that investigates the birth and death of the electric car, as well as the role of renewable energy and
sustainable living in the future.
http://www.whokilledtheelectriccar.com/

Attitudes and Values

1. What obligation do you have to use renewable, sustainable energy? Why?

2. Is energy a right for all people? Should it be available to only those who can pay?

3. How should we balance cost and environmental impact in choosing energy sources?

4. Who should bear the cost of cleaner energy, the developed or developing world? Does it matter who uses the
most energy now?

5. How much would you personally pay for cleaner energy?

Web Resources
Energy Information Administration
Energy statistics from the US government.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/

Fuel Cells 2000

Fuel cell information from multiple sources.
http://www.fuelcells.org/

National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden Colorado

Links to information on multiple forms of renewable energy.
http://www.nrel.gov/

American Wind Energy Association

Trade group for wind power providers.

218 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

http://www.awea.org/

Suggested Responses to End of Chapter Questions

Review Questions

1. Review the Key Questions and Concepts for this chapter on p. 398. Describe the work of Amory Lovins at the
Rocky Mountain Institute.
 Amory Lovins established a non-partisan, nonprofit group that does research and consulting on energy and
efficiency. He and the staff at the Rocky Mountain Institute have consulted for more than 80 corporations
and 50 countries to help save energy and money.

2. What is energy efficiency? Explain why we can think of energy efficiency as an energy resource. What
percentage of the energy used in the United States is unnecessarily wasted? List four widely used energy-
wasting technologies. What are the major advantages of reducing energy waste? List three reasons why this
source of energy has been neglected?
 The best way to conserve energy is to improve energy efficiency— the measure of how much work we can
get from each unit of energy we use.
 To most energy analysts, reducing energy waste is the quickest, cleanest, and usually the cheapest, way to
provide for our energy future.
 Forty three percent of all commercial energy used in the United States is wasted unnecessarily, mostly due
to the inefficiency of incandescent lights, furnaces, industrial motors, coal and nuclear power plants, most
motor vehicles, and other devices.
 Four energy-wasting technologies:
 Incandescent light bulbs
 Internal combustion engines
 Nuclear power-plants
 Coal-fired power plants
 Major advantages of reducing energy waste include prolonging fossil fuel supplies, reducing oil imports
and energy security, getting a very high net energy yield, low cost, reducing pollution and environmental
degradation, buying time to phase in renewable energy, and creating local jobs.
 One reason improving energy efficiency is neglected is a glut of relatively low- cost fossil fuels. As long as
energy remains artificially cheap, people are more likely to waste it and less likely to invest in improving
energy efficiency. Another reason is that there are few large and long-lasting governmental tax breaks,
rebates, low- interest, long- term loans, and other economic incentives for consumers and businesses to
invest in improving energy efficiency. Also, the U. S. federal government has done a poor job of
encouraging fuel efficiency in motor.

3. Describe three ways to save energy and money in (a) industry, (b) transportation, (c) new buildings and (d)
existing buildings. What is cogeneration (combined heat and power or CHP)? How could we encourage
electric utility companies to reduce their energy waste? What is a smart grid and why is it important?
 Ways to save energy and money include:
o In industry: cogeneration, replace energy-wasting electric motors and recycle materials.
o In transportation: increase public transportation, increase mileage standards and more energy-efficient
vehicles.
o In new buildings: orient the structure toward the sun, using living roofs and superinsulating.
o In existing buildings: improve insulation, use energy efficient appliances, and use energy efficient
windows.
 In cogeneration, two useful forms of energy (such as steam and electricity) are produced from the same fuel
source.
 Utility companies could reduce their energy waste by requiring that industries use cogeneration, replace
energy-wasting electric motors, recycling materials, and switch from incandescent lighting.

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  A smart grid is an energy-efficient, digitally controlled, ultra-high-voltage grid with superefficient
transmission lines that is responsive to local and regional changes in demand and supply. It is important
because it can help to conserve vast amounts of energy.

4. Describe the trends in fuel efficiency in the United States since the 1970s. Explain why the price of gasoline is
much higher than what consumers pay at the pump. What is a feebate? Distinguish among hybrid, plug-in
hybrid, and fuel- cell motor vehicles. Describe the possible connection between wind farms and plug-in hybrid
cars. Summarize the search for better batteries and describe two promising new developments. What is a living
roof? What is the importance of a white or light-colored roof? What is a superinsulated house? Compare the
efficiency of incandescent, compact fluorescent, and LED light bulbs. Explain how using compact fluorescent
light bulbs can reduce overall air pollution from toxic mercury. What are green buildings and why are they
important? List six ways you can save energy where you live. Give three reasons why we waste so much
energy.
 The price of gasoline does not include hidden costs such as government subsidies and tax breaks for oil
companies, car manufacturers and road builders; costs of pollution control and cleanup; costs of military
protection of oil supplies in the Middle East (not including the two Iraq wars); time wasted in traffic jams;
and costs of illness from air and water pollution in the form of higher medical bills and health insurance
premiums.
 The price of gasoline does not include hidden costs such as government subsidies and tax breaks for oil
companies, car manufacturers and road builders; costs of pollution control and cleanup; costs of military
protection of oil supplies in the Middle East (not including the two Iraq wars); time wasted in traffic jams;
and costs of illness from air and water pollution in the form of higher medical bills and health insurance
premiums.
 Feebate is a combination of a fee and a rebate, such as a program in which buyers of fuel-inefficient vehicles
pay a high fee, and the resulting revenues are given to buyers of efficient vehicles as rebates.
 Hybrids use more than one form of power. A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle is a hybrid with a second and
more powerful battery that can be plugged into a conventional electrical outlet and recharged.
 Fuel-cell motor vehicles use hydrogen gas as fuel to produce electricity.
 Wind can be used to generate electricity for charging plug-in hybrids, thus generating a carbon neutral, zero-
emissions form of transportation.
 The major obstacle standing in the way of mass-market, plug-in, hybrid electric vehicles is the difficulty in
making an affordable battery that can store enough energy to power a vehicle over long distances without
overheating. Two promising developments are new type of lithium battery that charges more rapidly, is less
likely to heat up to dangerous levels, and is cheaper than the batteries used to power today’s hybrid vehicles;
and using nanotechnology to make electrodes out of a nanophosphate material that will lengthen battery life
and will not heat up and release flammable oxygen.
 Living roofs are covered with soil and vegetation.
 Light colored roofs help reduce cooling costs by reflecting incoming solar radiation especially in hotter
climates.
 Superinsulation allows a house to be so heavily insulated and airtight that heat from direct sunlight,
appliances, and human bodies can warm it with little or no need for a backup heating system, even in
extremely cold climates.
 A compact fluorescent bulb uses one-fourth as much electricity as an incandescent bulb. LEDs use about
one-seventh of the electricity required by an incandescent bulb.
 The total amount of mercury in all of the country’s CFLs is a tiny fraction of the amount of mercury
released every year by coal-fired power plants that produce the electricity that lights many energy-wasting
incandescent bulbs.
 Green buildings incorporate many energy-efficient and money-saving designs, make use of natural lighting,
passive solar heating, solar cells, solar hot water heaters, recycled wastewater, and energy-efficient
appliances and lighting. They are important in increasing our overall energy efficiency.
 Six ways to save energy are:
o Plant trees to block summer sun.
o Use compact fluorescent light bulbs.
o Turn off lights and electronics when not in use,

220 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

 o Use high-efficiency windows.
o Weather strip and caulk doors.
o Use fans instead of air conditioning.
 Three reasons we waste energy are:
o Fossil fuels and nuclear power are artificially cheap.
o There are few government incentives to invest in energy efficiency.
o People tend to resist change.

5. List five advantages of relying more on a variety of renewable energy sources and describe two factors holding
back such a transition. Distinguish between a passive solar heating system and an active solar heating system
and discuss the major advantages and disadvantages of such systems for heating buildings. What are three ways
to cool houses naturally? Discuss the major advantages and disadvantages of concentrating solar energy to
generate high-temperature heat and electricity. What is a solar cell (photovoltaic or PV cell) and what are the
major advantages and disadvantages of using such devices to produce electricity?
 Making a major shift toward a variety of locally available renewable energy resources over the next few
decades would
o Result in a more decentralized and efficient energy economy that is less vulnerable to supply cutoffs
from terrorist attacks and natural disasters such as hurricanes.
o Improve national security for many countries by reducing their need to import oil from the Middle East.
o Reduce trade deficits that grow when a country imports oil.
o Greatly reduce emissions of climate-changing greenhouse gases and other air pollutants.
o Create large numbers of jobs, including high- paying jobs for skilled workers.
o Save consumers money.
 A passive solar heating system absorbs and stores heat from the sun directly within a well-insulated structure
without the need for pumps or fans to distribute the heat. An active solar heating system uses energy from
the sun by pumping a heat-absorbing fluid through special collectors usually mounted on a roof or on special
racks to face the sun.
 Advantages of heating a house with passive or active solar energy include: energy is free, net energy is
moderate (active) to high (passive), quick installation, and no CO2 emissions. Disadvantages include: need
access to sun 60% of time, sun can be blocked by trees and other structures, environmental costs not
included in market price, need heat storage system, high cost (active), active system needs maintenance and
repair, active collectors unattractive, very low air and water pollution, very low land disturbance (built into
roof or windows), and moderate cost (passive).
 Three ways to keep cool:
o Block the high summer sun with window overhangs or awnings.
o Use a light-colored roof to reflect as much as 80% of the sun’s heat
(compared to only 8% for a dark colored roof).
o Use geothermal heat pumps for cooling (and heating in winter).
 Advantages of using solar energy to generate high-temperature heat and electricity include: moderate
environmental impact, no CO2 emissions, fast construction (1–2 years), and costs reduced with natural gas
turbine backup. Disadvantages include: low efficiency, low net energy, high costs, environmental costs not
included in market price, needs backup or storage system, needs access to sun most of the time, and may
disturb desert areas.
 Solar energy can be converted directly into electrical energy by photovoltaic (PV) cells, commonly called
solar cells. Most solar cells are thin wafers of purified silicon with trace amounts of metals that allow them
to function as semiconductors to produce electricity.
 Advantages of using solar cells to produce electricity include: fairly high net energy yield, work on cloudy
days, quick installation, easily expanded or moved, no CO2 emissions, low environmental impact, last 20–40
years, low land use (if on roof or built into walls or windows), and reduces dependence on fossil fuels.
Disadvantages include: need access to sun, low efficiency, need electricity storage system or backup,
environmental costs not included in market price, high costs (but should be competitive in 5–15 years), high
land use (solar-cell power plants) could disrupt desert areas, and DC current must be converted to AC.

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6. What are the major advantages and disadvantages of using hydropower? What is the potential for using tides
and waves to produce electricity?
 Advantages of using large dams and reservoirs to produce electricity include: moderate to high net energy,
high efficiency (80%), large untapped potential, low-cost electricity, long life span, no CO2 emissions
during operation in temperate areas, can provide flood control below dam, provides irrigation water, and
reservoir useful for fishing and recreation. Disadvantages include: high construction costs, high
environmental impact from flooding land to form a reservoir, environmental costs not included in market
price, high CH4 emissions from rapid biomass decay in shallow tropical reservoirs, danger of collapse,
uproots people, decreases fish harvest below dam, and decreases flow of natural fertilizer (silt) to land
below dam.
 In some coastal bays and estuaries, water levels can rise or fall by 6 meters or more between daily high and
low tides. Dams have been built across the mouths of some bays and estuaries to capture the energy in
these flows for hydropower. However, globally, sites with large enough daily tidal flows are limited.
 One way to produce electricity is by tapping wave energy along seacoasts where there are almost
continuous waves. Off the coast of Portugal, large chains of floating steel tubes move up and down with
the wave action and generate electricity. However, most analysts expect tidal and wave power sources to
make only a small contribution to world electricity supplies, primarily because there are few suitable sites,
the costs are high, and the equipment is vulnerable to corrosion and storm damage. Improved technology
could greatly increase the production of electricity from waves sometime during this century.

7. What is a wind turbine? What is a wind farm? What are the major advantages and disadvantages of using wind
to produce electricity? Explain why the United States is the “Saudi Arabia of wind energy.” What are the
major advantages and disadvantages of burning wood to provide heat and electricity? What are biofuels and
what are the major advantages and disadvantages of using biodiesel and ethanol to power motor vehicles?
Evaluate the use of corn, sugarcane, and cellulose plants to produce ethanol. Describe the potential for using
algae and bacteria to produce gasoline and diesel fuel.
2. A wind turbine is driven by flows of air, or wind, and converts wind energy into electrical energy. Wind
farms have interconnected arrays of ten to hundreds of turbines.
 Advantages of wind power include: moderate to high net energy yield, high efficiency, moderate capital
cost, low electricity cost, very low environmental impact, no CO2 emissions, quick construction, easily
expanded, can be located at sea, and land below turbines can be used to grow crops or graze livestock.
Disadvantages include: steady winds needed, backup systems needed when winds are low, plastic
components produced from oil, environmental costs not included in market price, high land use for wind
farm, visual pollution, noise when located near populated areas, and can kill birds and interfere with flights
of migratory birds if not sited properly.
 Wind farms in the Great Plains states have the potential to generate more then enough power for the lower
48 states, and have been dubbed the Saudi Arabia of wind energy.
 Using wood to provide heat and electricity has advantages that include: potentially renewable forest and
can be local, and disadvantages that include increased deforestation, not enough, and air pollution.
 Plant materials and animal wastes can be converted into gaseous or liquid biofuels.
 Advantages of using biodiesel as a vehicle fuel include: reduced CO emissions, reduced CO2 emissions
(78%), high net energy yield for oil palm crops, moderate net energy yield for grape seed crops, reduced
hydrocarbon emissions, better gas mileage (40%), and potentially renewable. Disadvantages include:
increased NOx emissions and more smog, higher cost than regular diesel, environmental costs not included
in market price, low net energy yield for soybean crops, may compete with growing food on cropland and
raise food prices, loss and degradation of biodiversity from crop plantations, and can make engines hard to
start in cold weather.
 Advantages of using ethanol as a vehicle fuel include: high octane, some reduction in CO2 emissions
(sugarcane bagasse), high net energy yield (bagasse and switchgrass), can be sold as a mixture of gasoline
and ethanol or as pure ethanol, and potentially renewable. Disadvantages include: lower driving range, low
net energy yield (corn), higher CO2 emissions (corn), much higher cost, environmental costs not included in
market price, may compete with growing food and raise food prices, higher NOx emissions and more smog,
and corrosives can make engines hard to start in cold weather.
 Ethanol can be made through the fermentation and distillation of sugars in plants such as sugarcane, corn,
and switchgrass. Running motor vehicles run on ethanol or ethanol- gasoline mixtures can save huge

222 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

 amounts of money in imported oil costs. Brazil and the United States are the largest ethanol producers. In
Brazil, ethanol production has created about 1 million rural jobs. Brazil plans to greatly expand its
production of sugarcane to produce ethanol and to grow more soybeans to produce biodiesel. However, this
could threaten some of the country’s biodiversity. In the United States, most ethanol is made from corn. A
growing number of analysts warn that producing ethanol from corn will not significantly reduce the
country’s oil imports or help to slow global warming.
 Biofuels can potentially be made from various types of existing or genetically engineered oil-rich algae and
bacteria. However, there is much research still to be done in this area.

8. What is geothermal energy and what are three sources of such energy? What are the major advantages and
disadvantages of using geothermal energy as a source of heat and to produce electricity? What are the major
advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel and to produce electricity and to power motor
vehicles?
 Geothermal energy is heat stored in soil, underground rocks, and fluids in the earth’s mantle that can be
tapped into to store energy to heat and cool buildings and to produce electricity.
 Advantages of geothermal energy for space heating and for producing electricity or high-temperature heat
for industrial processes include: very high efficiency, moderate net energy at accessible sites, lower CO 2
emissions than fossil fuels, low cost at favorable sites, low land use and disturbance, and moderate
environmental impact. Disadvantages include: scarcity of suitable sites, can be depleted if used too rapidly,
environmental costs not included in market price, CO2 emissions, moderate to high local air pollution, noise
and odor (H2S), and high cost except at the most concentrated and accessible sources.
 Advantages of hydrogen:
o Can be produced from plentiful water.
o Low environmental impact.
o Renewable if produced from renewable energy resources.
o No CO2 emissions if produced from water.
o Good substitute for oil.
o Competitive price if environmental and social costs are included in cost comparisons.
o Easier to store than electricity.
o Safer than gasoline and natural gas.
o Nontoxic.
o High efficiency (45–65%) in fuel cells.
 Disadvantages of hydrogen:
o Not found as H2 in nature.
o Energy is needed to produce fuel.
o Negative net energy.
o CO2 emissions if produced from carbon-containing compounds.
o Environmental costs not included in market price.
o Nonrenewable if generated by fossil fuels or nuclear power.
o High costs (that may eventually come down).
o Will take 25 to 50 years to phase in.
o Short driving range for current fuel-cell cars.
o No fuel distribution system in place.
o Excessive H2 leaks may deplete ozone in the atmosphere.

9. List three general conclusions of energy experts about possible future energy paths for the world. List five
major strategies for making the transition to a more sustainable energy future. Describe three roles that
governments play in determining which energy resources we use.
 There will be a gradual shift from large, centralized macropower systems to smaller, decentralized
micropower systems such as wind turbines, household solar-cell panels, rooftop solar water heaters, small
natural gas turbines, and fuel cells for cars, houses, and commercial buildings.
 A combination of greatly improved energy efficiency and the temporary use of a natural gas will best help
us to make the transition to a diverse mix of locally available renewable energy resources over the next
several decades.

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  Because of their supplies and artificially low prices, fossil fuels will continue to be used in large quantities.
 See Figure 16-33 for major strategies for making the transition to a more sustainable energy future.
 Three roles government plays:
o Keeps the prices of selected energy resources artificially low to encourage use of those resources.
o Keeps the prices of selected energy resources artificially high to discourage their use.
o Emphasizes consumer education.

10. What are this chapter’s three big ideas? Describe how the Rocky Mountain Institute applies the three principles
of sustainability to evaluating and using energy resources.
 This chapter’s big ideas are:
o We should evaluate energy resources on the basis of their potential supplies, how much net useful
energy they provide, and the environmental impacts of using them.
o Using a mix of renewable energy sources—especially solar, wind, flowing water, sustainable biofuels,
and geothermal energy—can drastically reduce pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and biodiversity
losses.
o Making the transition to a more sustainable energy future will require sharply reducing energy waste,
using a mix of environmentally friendly renewable energy resources, and including the harmful
environmental costs of energy resources in their market prices.
 The Rocky Mountain Institute seeks solutions that maximize solar energy use, are live sustaining, and non-
polluting.

Critical Thinking

The following are examples of the material that should be contained in possible student answers to the end of
chapter Critical Thinking questions. They represent only a summary overview and serve to highlight the core
concepts that are addressed in the text. It should be anticipated that the students will provide more in-depth and
detailed responses to the questions depending on an individual instructor’s stated expectations.

1. Imagine that you live in the Rocky Mountain Institute’s building (Figure 16-1), powered mostly by the sun
(Core Case Study). Do you think that you would have to give up any of the conveniences you now enjoy? If so,
what are they? Describe any adjustments you might have to make in your way of living.

Student responses may vary. The designs advocated by the Rocky Mountain Institute do not necessarily
prohibit modern conveniences, but rather focus on efficiency, which may require certain behavioral
modifications.

2. List five ways in which you unnecessarily waste energy during a typical day, and explain how these actions
violate any of the four scientific principles of sustainability (see back cover).

People unnecessarily waste energy by having too many lights on in the home at night. Also, people use air
conditioners when it is not absolutely necessary; try opening a window! This applies in the winter, too. People
should wear more clothes instead of wasting energy by having their heaters turned on high. People should not
leave computers on at night when they go to bed and are not using them. When using a dish washer you should
make sure it has a full load in it. These are examples of things that I used to do, but after realizing that I am
going against the principles of sustainability, I no longer do them, particularly not relying on the sun for energy.

3. Congratulations! You have won $500,000 to build a more sustainable house of your choice. With the goal of
maximizing energy efficiency, what type of house would you build? How large would it be? Where would you
locate it? What types of materials would you use? What types of materials would you not use? How would you
heat and cool the house? How would you heat water? What types of lighting, stove, refrigerator, washer, and
dryer would you use? Which, if any, of these appliances could you do without?

224 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

 Student answers will vary but $500,000 would allow considerable innovation in home design. Student answers
may include alternative energy supplies including geothermal, solar (active or passive). Locations will vary with
student choices. Materials could include reclaimed building materials, sustainably harvested materials or
renewable materials such as strawbales. Heavy use of metals and non-sustainably produced woods would be
discouraged. Lighting, heating and appliances can be highly energy efficient (e.g. CFL or LED lighting).
Options for doing without will vary by student.

4. A homebuilder installs electric baseboard heat and claims, “It is the cheapest and cleanest way to go.” Apply
your understanding of the second law of thermodynamics (see Chapter 2, p. 47) and net energy (see Figure 15-
3) to evaluate this claim.

The second law of thermodynamics states that when energy changes from one form to another, some of the
useful energy is always degraded to lower-quality, more dispersed, less useful energy. If the electricity came
from a nuclear plant then it could be argued that this is cleaner than generating it from coal. However, the net
energy efficiency in either case is very low (@14%) when compared to other methods, such as passive solar that
has a much higher net energy efficiency (@90%). His claim is very flawed.

5. Should buyers of energy-efficient motor vehicles receive large rebates funded by fees levied on gas-guzzlers?
Explain.

An argument in favor of this proposal is that buyers of energy efficient vehicles are helping the environment
and should be rewarded in some way. If this is a monetary reward then the funds could be raised by taxing those
less-responsible people that drive the gas-guzzlers. We need to introduce more incentives for purchasing
hybrids and more disincentives for buying low-mpg vehicles.

6. Explain why you agree or disagree with the following proposals made by various energy analysts:
a. We should eliminate government subsidies for all energy alternatives so that all energy providers can
compete in a true free-market system. b. We should phase out all government tax breaks and other subsidies for
conventional fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), synthetic natural gas and oil, and nuclear power (fission
and fusion). We should replace them with subsidies and tax breaks for improving energy efficiency and
developing solar, wind, geothermal, hydrogen, and biomass energy alternatives. c. We should leave
development of solar, wind, and hydrogen energy to private enterprise and it should receive little or no help
from the federal government, but nuclear energy and fossil fuels should continue to receive large federal
government subsidies.

(a) I agree that government subsidies for all energy alternatives should be eliminated so all energy choices can
compete in a true free-market system. A counter argument is that government should try to steer energy
development toward renewable technologies and this may require subsides.
(b) I agree that all government subsidies or tax breaks for conventional fuels should be replaced with subsidies
and tax breaks for improving energy efficiency and developing solar, wind, geothermal, hydrogen, and biomass
energy alternatives.
(c) The government should not leave development of alternative energies in the hands of the private sector so
long as other energy sources receive large government subsidies.

7. Imagine that you are in charge of the U.S. Department of Energy (or the energy agency in the country where
you live). What percentages of your research and development budget will you devote to fossil fuels, nuclear
power, renewable energy, and improving energy efficiency? How would you distribute your funds among the
various types of renewable energy? Explain your thinking.

I would devote 15 percent of the R&D budget to fossil fuels. This would be in order to develop cleaner coal
burning technology and methods to reduce carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions. Fifteen percent of the
budget would go to nuclear, which would be focused on dealing with the radioactive waste that is produced so it
can be transformed into less dangerous forms. We will still need to rely on these “old” methods to supply our
energy needs until we can replace them with other forms of “newer” energy sources. That is why I would
allocate 50 percent toward R&D in the arena of renewable/alternative energy sources. These cannot be
developed overnight, and it will take time to get the ones that work out the best into widespread use. We can
Instructor's Manual: Chapter 16 225
 also reduce the amount of energy right now by being more energy efficient and improving energy conservation
in all areas of our energy use, which is why I would set aside 20 percent of the budget for R&D in this area.

8. China is investing 10 times as much as the United States is spending (as a percentage of its gross domestic
product) in new, cleaner energy technologies such as electric cars, wind power, and solar energy. Chinese
leaders understand that these technologies represent one of the biggest money-making opportunities of this
century, and they plan to sell these technologies to the world. Energy analysts and economists call for the
United States to launch a massive research and development program to join China in becoming a technological
and economic leader in the area of clean energy. Do you agree with this proposal? Explain.

Absolutely. The United States has a wonderful opportunity to contribute to the development of new
technologies and to bolster its economy by positioning itself as a global leader in the clean energy movement.

9. Congratulations! You are in charge of the world. List the five most important features of your energy policy.

Five important features of my energy policy would be: promote energy conservation and efficiency; phase-out
the use of wasteful energy appliances in the home; improve the mpg of all vehicles on the road and encourage
more people to drive hybrids and/or similar fuel efficient cars; ensure that all new construction meets
sustainable energy standards or are LEED certified, and promote zero population growth strategies
immediately.

10. List two questions that you would like to have answered as a result of reading this chapter.

Student answers will vary and provide a good starting point for class discussion.

Ecological Footprint Question

Make calculations to fill in the missing data in this table. Show all calculations. (1 liter = 0.265 gallon; 1 kilogram =
2.20 pounds; 1 hectare = 10,000 square meters = 2.47 acres)
EPA Size Model Combined Liters Kilograms Hectares
Class highway and city (gallons) of (pounds) of CO2 (acres) of
fuel efficiency in gasoline produced per year, tropical rain
kpl (mpg) consumed per assuming that the forest needed
year, combustion of to uptake the
assuming an gasoline releases CO2 produced
average 2.3 kilograms per per year,
mileage of liter (19 pounds per assuming that
19,300 gallon) the uptake of
kilometers an undisturbed
(12,000 miles) forest is 0.5
kilograms of
CO2 per square
meter
Compact Honda 17.8 (42.0)
Civic
Hybrid
Midsize Car Toyota 14.4 (34.0)
Camry
Hybrid
Sports Utility Hummer 6.40 (15.0)
Vehicle H3
(SUV)
Source : : www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/findacar.htm

226 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

ANSWERS

EPA Size Model Combined Liters Kilograms (pounds) Hectares

Class highway and city (gallons) of of CO2 produced per (acres) of
fuel efficiency in gasoline year, assuming that tropical rain
kpl (mpg) consumed per the combustion of forest needed
year, gasoline releases to uptake the
assuming an 2.4 kilograms per CO2 produced
average liter (19.6 pounds per year,
mileage of per gallon) assuming that
19,300 the uptake of
kilometers an undisturbed
(12,000 miles) forest is 0.5
kilograms of
CO2 per square
meter
Compact Honda 17.8 (42.0) 1,084 (286) 2,602 (5,606) 0.5 (1.2)
Civic
Hybrid
Midsize Car Toyota 14.4 (34.0) 1,340 (353) 3,216 (6,919) 0.64 (1.6)
Camry
Hybrid
Sports Utility Hummer 6.40 (15.0) 3,016 (800) 7,238 (15,680) 1.4 (3.6)
Vehicle H3
(SUV)

1. About how many times as much CO2 per year is produced by the SUV as is produced by the compact car?
2. About how many times as much CO2 per year is produced by the SUV as is produced by the midsize car?
3. How many hectares (acres) of tropical rain forest are needed to take up the CO2 produced annually by 1 million
SUVs?
4. How many hectares (acres) of tropical rain forest are needed to take up the CO2 produced annually by 1 million
midsize cars?
5. How many hectares (acres) of tropical rain forest are needed to take up the CO2 produced annually by 1 million
compact cars?

Calculations:

Gasoline consumed per year:

Compact:

19,300 kilometers per year/17.8 kilometers per year = 1,084 liters

12,000 miles per year/42.0 miles per gallon = 286 gallons

Midsize:

19,300 kilometers per year/14.4 kilometers per year = 1,340 liters

12,000 miles per year/34.0 miles per gallon = 353 gallons

SUV:

19,300 kilometers per year/6.40 kilometers per year = 3,016 liters

12,000 miles per year/15.0 miles per gallon = 800 gallons

Instructor's Manual: Chapter 16 227

CO2 produced per year

Compact:

1,084 liters gasoline x 2.4 kilograms CO2 per liter = 2,602 kilograms of CO2 per year
286 gallons gasoline x 19.6 pounds CO2 per liter = 5,606 pounds of CO2 per year

Midsize:

1,340 liters gasoline x 2.4 kilograms CO2 per liter = 3,216 kilograms of CO2 per year
353 gallons gasoline x 19.6 pounds CO2 per liter = 6,919 pounds of CO2 per year

SUV:

3,016 liters gasoline x 2.4 kilograms CO2 per liter = 7,238 kilograms of CO2 per year
800 gallons gasoline x 19.6 pounds CO2 per liter = 15,680 pounds of CO2 per year

Tropical forest needed to remove CO2 output per year

Compact:

2,602 kilograms CO2 x 1 square meter forest/0.5 kilograms CO2 x 1 hectare/10,000 square meters = 0.5 hectares of
forest

0.5 hectares x 2.47 acres/hectare = 1.2 acres of forest

Midsize:

3,216 kilograms CO2 x 1 square meter forest/0.50 kilograms CO2 x 1 hectare/10,000 square meters = 0.64 hectares
of forest

0.62 hectares x 2.47 acres/hectare = 1.6 acres of forest

SUV:

7,238 kilograms CO2 x 1 square meter forest/0.50 kilograms CO2 x 1 hectare/10,000 square meters = 1.4 hectares of
forest

1.4 hectares x 2.47 acres/hectare = 3.6 acres of forest

Answers:
1. 15,680 pounds of CO2 per year/5,606 pounds of CO2 per year = 2.8 times
2. 15,680 pounds of CO2 per year/6,919 pounds of CO2 per year = 2.3 times
3. 3.6 acres of forest x 1 million = 3.6 million acres
4. 1.6 acres of forest x 1 million = 1.6 million acres
5. 1.2 acres of forest x 1 million = 1.2 million acres

228 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy