Computer

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For other uses, see Computer (disambiguation).

Computers and computing devices from different

eras – clockwise from top left: Early vacuum tube
computer (ENIAC), Mainframe computer (IBM
System 360), Desktop
computer (IBM ThinkCentre S50 with
monitor), Supercomputer (IBM Blue
Gene/P), Video game
console (Nintendo GameCube), Smartphone (LYF 
Water 2)
A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry
out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming.
Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations,
called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of
tasks. A "complete" computer including the hardware, the operating
 system (main software), and peripheral equipment required and used for "full" operation
can be referred to as a computer system. This term may as well be used for a group of
computers that are connected and work together, in particular a computer
network or computer cluster.
Computers are used as control systems for a wide variety of industrial and consumer
devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote
controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer-aided design, and also
general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones.
The Internet is run on computers and it connects hundreds of millions of other computers
and their users.
Early computers were only conceived as calculating devices. Since ancient times, simple
manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations. Early in the Industrial
Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as
guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did
specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century. The first digital electronic
calculating machines were developed during World War II. The
first semiconductor transistors in the late 1940s were followed by the silicon-
based MOSFET (MOS transistor) and monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip technologies in
the late 1950s, leading to the microprocessor and the microcomputer revolution in the
1970s. The speed, power and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically
ever since then, with MOS transistor counts increasing at a rapid pace (as predicted
by Moore's law), leading to the Digital Revolution during the late 20th to early 21st
centuries.
Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically
a central processing unit (CPU) in the form of a metal-oxide-
semiconductor (MOS) microprocessor, along with some type of computer memory,
typically MOS semiconductor memory chips. The processing element carries out arithmetic
and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of
operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices include input devices
(keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices (monitor screens, printers, etc.), and
input/output devices that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s-era touchscreen).
Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they
enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.

Contents

 1Etymology
 2History
o 2.1Pre-20th century
o 2.2First computing device
o 2.3Analog computers
o 2.4Digital computers
 o 2.5Modern computers
o 2.6Mobile computers
 3Types
o 3.1By architecture
o 3.2By size, form-factor and purpose
 4Hardware
o 4.1History of computing hardware
o 4.2Other hardware topics
o 4.3Input devices
o 4.4Output devices
o 4.5Control unit
o 4.6Central processing unit (CPU)
o 4.7Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
o 4.8Memory
o 4.9Input/output (I/O)
o 4.10Multitasking
o 4.11Multiprocessing
 5Software
o 5.1Languages
o 5.2Programs
 6Networking and the Internet
 7Unconventional computers
 8Future
o 8.1Computer architecture paradigms
o 8.2Artificial intelligence
 9Professions and organizations
 10See also
 11References
 12Notes
 13External links

Etymology
A human computer, with microscope and calculator, 1952
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known use of the word "computer" was
in 1613 in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by English writer Richard Braithwait: "I
haue [sic] read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer [sic]
breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number." This usage of the term referred
to a human computer, a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word
continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. During the latter
part of this period women were often hired as computers because they could be paid less
than their male counterparts.[1] By 1943, most human computers were women.[2]
The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of "computer" in the 1640s,
meaning "one who calculates"; this is an "agent noun from compute (v.)". The Online
Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean "'calculating machine' (of any
type) is from 1897." The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the "modern use" of the
term, to mean "programmable digital electronic computer" dates from "1945 under this
name; [in a] theoretical [sense] from 1937, as Turing machine".[3]

History
Main article: History of computing hardware
Pre-20th century

The Ishango bone, a bone tool dating back to prehistoric Africa.

Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one
correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally
stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay
spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed
in hollow unbaked clay containers.[4][5] The use of counting rods is one example.

The Chinese suanpan (算盘). The number represented on this abacus is 6,302,715,408.

The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from
devices used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning
boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered
cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain
rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.[6]

The Antikythera mechanism, dating back to ancient Greece circa 150–100 BC, is an

early analog computing device.
The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer,
according to Derek J. de Solla Price.[7] It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It
was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera,
between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to c. 100 BC. Devices of a level of
complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a
thousand years later.
Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical
and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayhā n al-Bīrū nī in
the early 11th century.[8] The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the
1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the
planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of
working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe
incorporating a mechanical calendar computer[9][10] and gear-wheels was invented by Abi
Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235.[11] Abū Rayhā n al-Bīrū nī invented the first mechanical
geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe,[12] an early fixed-wired knowledge
processing machine[13] with a gear train and gear-wheels,[14] c. 1000 AD.
The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry,
multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was
developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and
navigation.
The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing
over it with a mechanical linkage.

A slide rule.
The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after the publication of the concept
of the logarithm. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and
division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares
and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as
logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions.
Slide rules with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations,
such as the E6B circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on light aircraft.
In the 1770s, Pierre Jaquet-Droz, a Swiss watchmaker, built a mechanical doll (automaton)
that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal
wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could
be mechanically "programmed" to read instructions. Along with two other complex
machines, the doll is at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Neuchâ tel, Switzerland, and still
operates.[15]
In 1831–1835, mathematician and engineer Giovanni Plana devised a Perpetual Calendar
machine, which, though a system of pulleys and cylinders and over, could predict
the perpetual calendar for every year from AD 0 (that is, 1 BC) to AD 4000, keeping track of
leap years and varying day length. The tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William
Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of
pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a
particular location.
The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential
equations by integration, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In
1876, Lord Kelvin had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but
he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators.[16] In a
differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or
a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to
work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential
analyzers.
First computing device
A portion of Babbage's Difference engine.
Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a
programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer",[17] he conceptualized
and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his
revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he
realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The input of
programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being
used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the
machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to
punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic
unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory,
making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in
modern terms as Turing-complete.[18][19]
The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be
made by hand – this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually,
the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding.
Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to political and
financial difficulties as well as his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer
and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son, Henry
Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the mill)
in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906.
Analog computers
Main article: Analog computer
Sir William Thomson's third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81
During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by
increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical
model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable
and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. [20] The first
modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by Sir William
Thomson in 1872. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to
solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was
conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.[16]
The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer,
built by H. L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927. This built on the
mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W.
Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By
the 1950s, the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog
computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in some
specialized applications such as education (slide rule) and aircraft (control systems).
Digital computers
Electromechanical
By 1938, the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer
small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer, which used
trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War
II similar devices were developed in other countries as well.

Replica of Zuse's Z3, the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer.

Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove mechanical relays
to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually
superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2,
created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest examples of an
electromechanical relay computer.[21]
In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world's first
working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer.[22][23] The Z3
was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock
frequency of about 5–10 Hz.[24] Program code was supplied on punched film while data
could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar
to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating
point numbers. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system (used in Charles
Babbage's earlier design), using a binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to
build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. [25] The Z3
was not itself a universal computer but could be extended to be Turing complete.[26][27]
Vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits
Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical
equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer Tommy
Flowers, working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the 1930s, began to
explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental
equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation five years later, converting a portion
of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using
thousands of vacuum tubes.[20] In the US, John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of
Iowa State University developed and tested the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942,
[28]
 the first "automatic electronic digital computer".[29] This design was also all-electronic
and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum
for memory.[30]

Colossus, the first electronic digital programmable computing device, was used to break

German ciphers during World War II.
During World War II, the British at Bletchley Park achieved a number of successes at
breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption
machine, Enigma, was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes which
were often run by women.[31][32] To crack the more sophisticated German Lorenz SZ
40/42 machine, used for high-level Army communications, Max Newman and his
colleagues commissioned Flowers to build the Colossus.[30] He spent eleven months from
early February 1943 designing and building the first Colossus. [33] After a functional test in
December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18
January 1944[34] and attacked its first message on 5 February.[30]
Colossus was the world's first electronic digital programmable computer.[20] It used a large
number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper-tape input and was capable of being
configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was
not Turing-complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II
making ten machines in total). Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 thermionic valves (tubes),
but Mark II with 2,400 valves, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I,
greatly speeding the decoding process.[35][36]

ENIAC was the first electronic, Turing-complete device, and performed ballistics trajectory
calculations for the United States Army.
The ENIAC[37] (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic
programmable computer built in the U.S. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus, it
was much faster, more flexible, and it was Turing-complete. Like the Colossus, a "program"
on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from
the stored program electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it
had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches.
The programmers of the ENIAC were six women, often known collectively as the "ENIAC
girls".[38][39]
It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many
complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster
than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High
speed memory was limited to 20 words (about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of John
Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC's development and
construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge,
weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum
tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors. [40]
Modern computers
Concept of modern computer
The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal 1936
paper,[41] On Computable Numbers. Turing proposed a simple device that he called
"Universal Computing machine" and that is now known as a universal Turing machine. He
proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by
executing instructions (program) stored on tape, allowing the machine to be
programmable. The fundamental concept of Turing's design is the stored program, where
all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. Von Neumann acknowledged that
the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. [42] Turing machines are
to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations
imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete,
which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing
machine.
Stored programs
Main article: Stored-program computer

A section of the Manchester Baby, the first electronic stored-program computer

Early computing machines had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-
wiring and re-structuring of the machine.[30] With the proposal of the stored-program
computer this changed. A stored-program computer includes by design an instruction
set and can store in memory a set of instructions (a program) that details the computation.
The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was laid by Alan Turing in his 1936
paper. In 1945, Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and began work on
developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His 1945 report "Proposed
Electronic Calculator" was the first specification for such a device. John von Neumann at
the University of Pennsylvania also circulated his First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC in
1945.[20]
The Manchester Baby was the world's first stored-program computer. It was built at
the Victoria University of Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff
Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948.[43] It was designed as a testbed for
the Williams tube, the first random-access digital storage device.[44] Although the computer
was considered "small and primitive" by the standards of its time, it was the first working
machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer. [45] As
soon as the Baby had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at
the university to develop it into a more usable computer, the Manchester Mark 1. Grace
Hopper was the first person to develop a compiler for programming language.[2]
The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1, the world's first
commercially available general-purpose computer. [46] Built by Ferranti, it was delivered to
the University of Manchester in February 1951. At least seven of these later machines were
delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to Shell labs in Amsterdam.[47] In October
1947, the directors of British catering company J. Lyons & Company decided to take an
active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. The LEO I computer
became operational in April 1951[48] and ran the world's first regular routine office
computer job.
Transistors
Main articles: Transistor and History of the transistor
Further information: Transistor computer and MOSFET

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

The concept of a field-effect transistor was proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in
1925. John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, while working under William Shockley at Bell
Labs, built the first working transistor, the point-contact transistor, in 1947, which was
followed by Shockley's bipolar junction transistor in 1948.[49][50] From 1955 onwards,
transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second
generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages:
they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Junction
transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service
life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a
relatively compact space. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices
that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a
number of specialised applications.[51]
At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and
built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves. [52] Their
first transistorised computer and the first in the world, was operational by 1953, and a
second version was completed there in April 1955. However, the machine did make use of
valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its
magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. That
distinction goes to the Harwell CADET of 1955,[53] built by the electronics division of
the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell.[53][54]
MOSFET (MOS transistor), showing gate (G), body (B), source (S) and drain (D) terminals.
The gate is separated from the body by an insulating layer (pink).
The metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET), also known as the MOS
transistor, was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[55] It
was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a
wide range of uses.[51] With its high scalability,[56] and much lower power consumption and
higher density than bipolar junction transistors,[57] the MOSFET made it possible to
build high-density integrated circuits.[58][59] In addition to data processing, it also enabled
the practical use of MOS transistors as memory cell storage elements, leading to the
development of MOS semiconductor memory, which replaced earlier magnetic-core
memory in computers. The MOSFET led to the microcomputer revolution,[60] and became
the driving force behind the computer revolution.[61][62] The MOSFET is the most widely
used transistor in computers,[63][64] and is the fundamental building block of digital
electronics.[65]
Integrated circuits
Main articles: Integrated circuit and Invention of the integrated circuit
Further information: Planar process and Microprocessor
The next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated
circuit (IC). The idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist
working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W.A.
Dummer. Dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the
Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington, D.C. on 7 May
1952.[66]
The first working ICs were invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert
Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor.[67] Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the
integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated
example on 12 September 1958.[68] In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby
described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material ... wherein all the
components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated". [69][70] However, Kilby's
invention was a hybrid integrated circuit (hybrid IC), rather than a monolithic integrated
circuit (IC) chip.[71] Kilby's IC had external wire connections, which made it difficult to
mass-produce.[72]
Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby.
[73]
 Noyce's invention was the first true monolithic IC chip. [74][72] His chip solved many
practical problems that Kilby's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made
of silicon, whereas Kilby's chip was made of germanium. Noyce's monolithic IC
was fabricated using the planar process, developed by his colleague Jean Hoerni in early
1959. In turn, the planar process was based on the silicon surface passivation and thermal
oxidation processes developed by Mohamed Atalla at Bell Labs in the late 1950s.[75][76][77]
Modern monolithic ICs are predominantly MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor) integrated
circuits, built from MOSFETs (MOS transistors).[78] After the first MOSFET was invented by
Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959,[79] Atalla first proposed the concept
of the MOS integrated circuit in 1960, followed by Kahng in 1961, both noting that the MOS
transistor's ease of fabrication made it useful for integrated circuits.[51][80] The earliest
experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and
Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[81] General Microelectronics later introduced the first
commercial MOS IC in 1964, [82] developed by Robert Norman.[81] Following the
development of the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOS transistor by Robert
Kerwin, Donald Klein and John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967, the first silicon-gate MOS IC
with self-aligned gates was developed by Federico Faggin at Fairchild Semiconductor in
1968.[83] The MOSFET has since become the most critical device component in modern ICs.
[84]

The development of the MOS integrated circuit led to the invention of the microprocessor,
[85][86]
 and heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers. While
the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due
to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor", it is largely
undisputed that the first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004,[87] designed and
realized by Federico Faggin with his silicon-gate MOS IC technology, [85] along with Ted
Hoff, Masatoshi Shima and Stanley Mazor at Intel.[88][89] In the early 1970s, MOS IC
technology enabled the integration of more than 10,000 transistors on a single chip.[59]
System on a Chip (SoCs) are complete computers on a microchip (or chip) the size of a coin.
[90]
 They may or may not have integrated RAM and flash memory. If not integrated, The
RAM is usually placed directly above (known as Package on package) or below (on the
opposite side of the circuit board) the SoC, and the flash memory is usually placed right
next to the SoC, this all done to improve data transfer speeds, as the data signals don't have
to travel long distances. Since ENIAC in 1945, computers have advanced enormously, with
modern SoCs (Such as the Snapdragon 865) being the size of a coin while also being
hundreds of thousands of times more powerful than ENIAC, integrating billions of
transistors, and consuming only a few watts of power.
Mobile computers
The first mobile computers were heavy and ran from mains power. The 50lb IBM 5100 was
an early example. Later portables such as the Osborne 1 and Compaq Portable were
considerably lighter but still needed to be plugged in. The first laptops, such as the Grid
Compass, removed this requirement by incorporating batteries – and with the continued
miniaturization of computing resources and advancements in portable battery life, portable
computers grew in popularity in the 2000s.[91] The same developments allowed
manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular mobile phones by the early
2000s.
These smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and recently became
the dominant computing device on the market.[92] These are powered by System on a
Chip (SoCs), which are complete computers on a microchip the size of a coin. [90]

Types
See also: Classes of computers
Computers can be classified in a number of different ways, including:
By architecture

 Analog computer
 Digital computer
 Hybrid computer
 Harvard architecture
 Von Neumann architecture
 Complex instruction set computer
 Reduced instruction set computer
By size, form-factor and purpose

 Supercomputer
 Mainframe computer
 Minicomputer (term no longer used)
 Server
o Rackmount server
o Blade server
o Tower server
 Personal computer
o Workstation
o Microcomputer (term no longer used)
 Home computer
o Desktop computer
 Tower desktop
 Slimline desktop
 Multimedia computer (non-linear editing system computers,
video editing PCs and the like)
 Gaming computer
 All-in-one PC
 Nettop (Small form factor PCs, Mini PCs)
 Home theater PC
 Keyboard computer
 Portable computer
 Thin client
  Internet appliance
o Laptop
 Desktop replacement computer
 Gaming laptop
 Rugged laptop
 2-in-1 PC
 Ultrabook
 Chromebook
 Subnotebook
 Netbook
 Mobile computers:
o Tablet computer
o Smartphone
o Ultra-mobile PC
o Pocket PC
o Palmtop PC
o Handheld PC
 Wearable computer
o Smartwatch
o Smartglasses
 Single-board computer
 Plug computer
 Stick PC
 Programmable logic controller
 Computer-on-module
 System on module
 System in a package
 System-on-chip (Also known as an Application Processor or AP if it lacks circuitry
such as radio circuitry)
 Microcontroller

Hardware
Main articles: Computer hardware, Personal computer hardware, Central processing unit,
and Microprocessor
Video demonstrating the standard components of a "slimline" computer
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical
objects. Circuits, computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboard,
displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice" input devices are all
hardware.
History of computing hardware
Main article: History of computing hardware

Pascal's
calculator, Arithmometer, Differ
Calculators
ence engine, Quevedo's
analytical machines
First generation
(mechanical/electromecha
nical)
Jacquard loom, Analytical
engine, IBM ASCC/Harvard
Programmable devices
Mark I, Harvard Mark II, IBM
SSEC, Z1, Z2, Z3

Atanasoff–Berry Computer, IBM
Calculators
604, UNIVAC 60, UNIVAC 120

Second generation (vacuum Colossus, ENIAC, Manchester

tubes) Baby, EDSAC, Manchester Mark
1, Ferranti Pegasus, Ferranti
Programmable devices
Mercury, CSIRAC, EDVAC, UNIV
AC I, IBM 701, IBM 702, IBM
650, Z22

IBM 7090, IBM 7080, IBM

Mainframes
System/360, BUNCH

Third generation
(discrete transistors and HP 2116A, IBM System/32, IBM
SSI, MSI, LSI integrated Minicomputer System/36, LINC, PDP-8, PDP-
circuits) 11

Desktop Computer HP 9100

 Minicomputer VAX, IBM System i

4-bit microcomputer Intel 4004, Intel 4040

Intel 8008, Intel 8080, Motorola

8-bit microcomputer 6800, Motorola 6809, MOS
Technology 6502, Zilog Z80

Intel 8088, Zilog Z8000, WDC

16-bit microcomputer
65816/65802

Fourth generation Intel 80386, Pentium, Motorola

32-bit microcomputer
(VLSI integrated circuits) 68000, ARM

Alpha, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, 
64-bit microcomputer[93]
SPARC, x86-64, ARMv8-A

Embedded computer Intel 8048, Intel 8051

Desktop computer, Home
computer, Laptop computer, Per
sonal digital
Personal computer
assistant (PDA), Portable
computer, Tablet PC, Wearable
computer

Quantum
computer, Chemical
computer, DNA
computing, Optical
Theoretical/experimental
computer, Spintronics-
based
computer, Wetware/Org
anic computer
Other hardware topics

Mouse, keyboard, joystick, image
Input scanner, webcam, graphics
tablet, microphone

Peripheral device
(input/output) Output Monitor, printer, loudspeaker

Floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, optical

Both
disc drive, teleprinter

Short range RS-232, SCSI, PCI, USB

Computer buses
Long range
(computer Ethernet, ATM, FDDI
networking)

A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O).
These parts are interconnected by buses, often made of groups of wires. Inside each of
these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or
on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of
information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a
"0" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or
more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.
Input devices
When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is
processed and sent to output devices. The input devices may be hand-operated or
automated. The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU. Some examples of input
devices are:

 Computer keyboard
 Digital camera
 Digital video
 Graphics tablet
 Image scanner
 Joystick
 Microphone
 Mouse
 Overlay keyboard
 Real-time clock
 Trackball
 Touchscreen
Output devices
The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some
examples of output devices are:

 Computer monitor
 Printer
 PC speaker
 Projector
 Sound card
 Video card
Control unit
Main articles: CPU design and Control unit

Diagram showing how a particular MIPS architecture instruction would be decoded by the

control system
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the
computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program
instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the
computer.[94] Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of
some instructions to improve performance.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell
(a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read
from.[95]
The control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and
some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on
the type of CPU:

1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program
counter.
2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for
each of the other systems.
3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
 4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from
an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the
instruction code.
5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the
hardware to perform the requested operation.
7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps
an output device.
8. Jump back to step (1).
Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be
changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause
the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program.
Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for
loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction
execution (both examples of control flow).
The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is
in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs,
there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer, which runs
a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
Central processing unit (CPU)
Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor
The control unit, ALU, and registers are collectively known as a central processing
unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components. Since the 1970s,
CPUs have typically been constructed on a single MOS integrated circuit chip called
a microprocessor.
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
Main article: Arithmetic logic unit
The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic. [96] The set
of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and
subtraction, or might include multiplication, division, trigonometry functions such as sine,
cosine, etc., and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) while
others use floating point to represent real numbers, albeit with limited precision. However,
any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be
programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can
perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic
operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the
operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or
false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64
greater than 65?"). Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT. These
can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.
Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several
instructions simultaneously.[97] Graphics processors and computers
with SIMD and MIMD features often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic
on vectors and matrices.
Memory
Main articles: Computer memory and Computer data storage

Magnetic-core memory (using magnetic cores) was the computer memory of choice in the

1960s, until it was replaced by semiconductor memory (using MOS memory cells).
A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or
read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can
be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number
that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595."
The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers,
even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does
not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility
to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.
In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in
groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers
(28 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several
consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are
required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are
possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts.
A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented
numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written
to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and
one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most
frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is
needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory
(which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the
computer's speed.
Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:

 random-access memory or RAM

 read-only memory or ROM
RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is preloaded with
data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read from it. ROM is
typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents
of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data
indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that
orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM
whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do
not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in
ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than
software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data
when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM
and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.
[98]

In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories, which
are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort
of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often
without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.
Input/output (I/O)
Main article: Input/output

Hard disk drives are common storage devices used with computers.

I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world.
[99]
 Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals.[100] On a
typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse,
and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives
and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. Computer networking is
another form of I/O. I/O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their
own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny
computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics.[citation
needed]
 Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU
in performing I/O. A 2016-era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry.
Multitasking
Main article: Computer multitasking
While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main
memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several
programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch
rapidly between running each program in turn.[101] One means by which this is done is with
a special signal called an interrupt, which can periodically cause the computer to stop
executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where
it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several
programs are running "at the same time". then the interrupt generator might be causing
several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern
computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human
perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though
only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes
termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn. [102]
Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow
many people to share the same computer. Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer
that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to the
number of programs it is running, but most programs spend much of their time waiting for
slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to
click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until
the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so
that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.
Multiprocessing
Main article: Multiprocessing

Cray designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.

Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a
multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful
machines such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor
and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop
computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets
as a result.
Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ
significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose
computers.[103] They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects,
and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized
tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of
the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-
scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other
so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.

Software
Main article: Computer software
Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as
programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of
encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from
which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and
related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. It is often
divided into system software and application software Computer hardware and software
require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. When software is stored
in hardware that cannot easily be modified, such as with BIOS ROM in an IBM PC
compatible computer, it is sometimes called "firmware".

Operating UNIX System V, IBM AIX, HP-

system /System Unix and BSD UX, Solaris (SunOS), IRIX, List of BSD operating
Software systems

List of Linux distributions, Comparison of Linux

GNU/Linux
distributions

Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows

Microsoft NT, Windows 2000, Windows ME, Windows
Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows
8, Windows 8.1, Windows 10

86-DOS (QDOS), IBM PC DOS, MS-DOS, DR-
DOS
DOS, FreeDOS

Macintosh
Classic Mac OS, macOS (previously OS X and Mac
operating
OS X)
systems

Embedded and re
List of embedded operating systems
al-time

Experimental Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from Bell

 Labs

Multimedia DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL, Vulkan (API)

Library
Programming
C standard library, Standard Template Library
library

Protocol TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP
Data
File format HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG

Microsoft
Graphical user
Windows, GNOME, KDE, QNX Photon, CDE, GEM, 
interface (WIMP)
Aqua
User interface

Text-based user
Command-line interface, Text user interface
interface

Application Softw Word processing, Desktop

are publishing, Presentation program, Database
Office suite
management system, Scheduling & Time
management, Spreadsheet, Accounting software

Browser, Email client, Web server, Mail transfer

Internet Access
agent, Instant messaging

Computer-aided design, Computer-aided
Design and
manufacturing, Plant management, Robotic
manufacturing
manufacturing, Supply chain management

Graphics Raster graphics editor, Vector graphics

editor, 3D modeler, Animation editor, 3D
computer graphics, Video editing, Image
 processing

Digital audio editor, Audio

Audio playback, Mixing, Audio synthesis, Computer
music

Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter, Debugger, Tex
t editor, Integrated development
Software
environment, Software performance
engineering
analysis, Revision control, Software
configuration management

Edutainment, Educational game, Serious
Educational
game, Flight simulator

Strategy, Arcade, Puzzle, Simulation, First-
Games person shooter, Platform, Massively
multiplayer, Interactive fiction

Artificial intelligence, Antivirus
Misc software, Malware scanner, Installer/Package
management systems, File manager

Languages
There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended to be general
purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.

Programming languages

Lists of Timeline of programming languages, List of programming languages by

programming category, Generational list of programming languages, List of
languages programming languages, Non-English-based programming languages

Commonly ARM, MIPS, x86
used assembl
y languages

Commonly
used high-
Ada, BASIC, C, C++, C#, COBOL, Fortran, PL/I, REXX, Java, Lisp, Pascal, Obj
level
ect Pascal
programming
languages

Commonly
used scriptin Bourne script, JavaScript, Python, Ruby, PHP, Perl
g languages

Programs
The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other
machines is that they can be programmed. That is to say that some type
of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer, and it will process them.
Modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the
form of an imperative programming language. In practical terms, a computer program may
be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs
for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can
execute billions of instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over
many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million
instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of
the task almost certainly contain errors.
Stored program architecture
Main articles: Computer program and Computer programming

Replica of the Manchester Baby, the world's first electronic stored-program computer, at

the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester, England
This section applies to most common RAM machine–based computers.
In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some
data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These
instructions are read from the computer's memory and are generally carried out
(executed) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized
instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the
program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions
(or branches). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so
that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some
previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly
support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped
from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.
Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read
each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text
or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and
repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some
internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what
allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.
Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation
such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the
numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a
near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to
do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the MIPS
assembly language:

begin:
addi $8, $0, 0 # initialize sum to 0
addi $9, $0, 1 # set first number to add = 1
loop:
slti $10, $9, 1000 # check if the number is less than 1000
beq $10, $0, finish # if odd number is greater than n then exit
add $8, $8, $9 # update sum
addi $9, $9, 1 # get next number
j loop # repeat the summing process
finish:
add $2, $8, $0 # put sum in output register

Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task
without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC
can complete the task in a fraction of a second.
Machine code
In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each
instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or opcode for short). The
command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply
them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to
perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have
several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's
memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the
important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be
represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in
the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the
computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or
stored program[citation needed], architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all
of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called
the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann
computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU
caches.
While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine
language) and while this technique was used with many early computers, [104] it is extremely
tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated
programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its
function and easy to remember – a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These
mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language. Converting
programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually
understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an
assembler.

A 1970s punched card containing one line from a Fortran program. The card reads: "Z(1) =
Y + W(1)" and is labeled "PROJ039" for identification purposes.
Programming language
Main article: Programming language
Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to
run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no
ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to
read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or
an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter.
Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques.
Low-level languages
Main article: Low-level programming language
Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively
termed low-level programming languages) are generally unique to the particular
architecture of a computer's central processing unit (CPU). For instance, an ARM
architecture CPU (such as may be found in a smartphone or a hand-held videogame) cannot
understand the machine language of an x86 CPU that might be in a PC.[105] Historically a
significant number of other cpu architectures were created and saw extensive use, notably
including the MOS Technology 6502 and 6510 in addition to the Zilog Z80.
High-level languages
Main article: High-level programming language
Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly
language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are
written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the
needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error).
High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or sometimes into
assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program
called a compiler.[106] High level languages are less related to the workings of the target
computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the
problem(s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different
compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of
many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video
games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal
computers and various video game consoles.
Program design
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Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the
problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising
or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and
solutions to the problem as applicable. As problems become larger and more complex,
features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as
object-oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line
of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing
large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software
with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically
been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software
engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.
Bugs
Main article: Software bug
The actual first computer bug, a moth found trapped on a relay of the Harvard Mark II
computer
Errors in computer programs are called "bugs". They may be benign and not affect the
usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause
the program or the entire system to "hang", becoming unresponsive to input such
as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash. Otherwise benign bugs may
sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an exploit,
code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer's proper execution. Bugs
are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions
they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight
made in the program's design.[107] Admiral Grace Hopper, an American computer scientist
and developer of the first compiler, is credited for having first used the term "bugs" in
computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay in the Harvard Mark II computer
in September 1947.[108]

Networking and the Internet

Main articles: Computer networking and Internet

Visualization of a portion of the routes on the Internet

Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the
1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system,
which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems such as Sabre.[109] In the
1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to
link their computers together using telecommunications technology. The effort was funded
by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that resulted was called the ARPANET.
[110]
 The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.
In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known
as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and
boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified
to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network,
such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources
of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people
working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail
and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking
technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous.
In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large
proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and
receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has
meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing
environments.

Unconventional computers
Main article: Human computer
See also: Harvard Computers
A computer does not need to be electronic, nor even have a processor, nor RAM, nor even
a hard disk. While popular usage of the word "computer" is synonymous with a personal
electronic computer, the modern[111] definition of a computer is literally: "A device that
computes, especially a programmable [usually] electronic machine that performs high-
speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise
processes information."[112] Any device which processes information qualifies as a computer,
especially if the processing is purposeful.[citation needed]

Future
There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of
technology, such as optical computers, DNA computers, neural computers, and quantum
computers. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any computable
function, and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However
different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular
problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption
algorithms (by quantum factoring) very quickly.
Computer architecture paradigms
There are many types of computer architectures:

 Quantum computer vs. Chemical computer

 Scalar processor vs. Vector processor
 Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA) computers
 Register machine vs. Stack machine
 Harvard architecture vs. von Neumann architecture
 Cellular architecture
Of all these abstract machines, a quantum computer holds the most promise for
revolutionizing computing.[113] Logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to
most of the above digital or analog paradigms. The ability to store and execute lists of
instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them
from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility:
any computer with a minimum capability (being Turing-complete) is, in principle, capable
of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore, any type of
computer (netbook, supercomputer, cellular automaton, etc.) is able to perform the same
computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.
Artificial intelligence
A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to
efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code.
Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial
intelligence and machine learning. Artificial intelligence based products generally fall into
two major categories: rule based systems and pattern recognition systems. Rule based
systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to
develop. Pattern based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions.
Examples of pattern based systems include voice recognition, font recognition, translation
and the emerging field of on-line marketing.

Professions and organizations

As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of
careers involving computers.

Computer-related professions

Electrical engineering, Electronic engineering, Computer

Hardware-
engineering, Telecommunications engineering, Optical
related
engineering, Nanoengineering

Computer science, Computer engineering, Desktop publishing, Human–

Software- computer interaction, Information technology, Information
related systems, Computational science, Software engineering, Video game
industry, Web design

The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has
spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal
and informal nature.
 Organizations

Standards groups ANSI, IEC, IEEE, IETF, ISO, W3C

Professional societies ACM, AIS, IET, IFIP, BCS

Free/open source Free Software Foundation, Mozilla Foundation, Apache

software groups Software Foundation

See also

 Glossary of computers
 Computability theory
 Computer insecurity
 Computer security
 Glossary of computer hardware terms
 History of computer science
 List of computer term etymologies
 List of fictional computers
 List of pioneers in computer science
 Pulse computation
 TOP500 (list of most powerful computers)
 Unconventional computing

References

1. ^ Evans 2018, p. 23.

2. ^ Jump up to:a b Smith 2013, p. 6.
3. ^ "computer (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary.
4. ^ According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained
tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The
containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order
to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were
placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions
were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically
used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually
(Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 4000 years Archived 30 January 2012 at
the Wayback Machine ) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that
were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets
with marks for the count.