AL KABIR POLYTECHNIC

JAMSHEDPUR

LAB MANUAL OF THERMAL ENgINEERINg

LAB SUBJECT CODE – MEC410
 Al Kabir Polytechnic Jamshedpur
Name of the Lab: Thermal Engineering Lab

Subject Code: MEC410

List of Experiments

1 Collection of technical data and specification of photovoltaic

cell by referring to manufacturers, catalogues.
2 Study of heat transfer and concept of heat exchanger.

3 Study and Trial on solar water heating system.

4 To determine the thermal conductivity of given metal rod.
5 To determine Stefan Boltzmann Constant for radiation heat transfer
6 Study and compare various heat exchangers such as radiators, evaporators,
condensers, plate heat exchangers etc.
7 Report on visit to wind power generation plant / biogas plant /
hydraulic power plant.
8 Trace the flue gas path and water steam circuit with the help of boiler model and
Write all parts.
9 To study the constructional features of BABCOCK and WILCOX BOILER /Lancashire
boiler
10 To study different types of steam nozzles
 - EXPERIMENT NO – 1
AIM: Collection of technical data and specification of photovoltaic cell by referring to
manufacturers, catalogues.

THEORY
Photovoltaic or Solar Cell
Definition: The Photovoltaic cell is the semiconductor device that converts the light into
electrical energy. The voltage induces by the PV cell depends on the intensity of light incident on
it. The name Photovoltaic is because of their voltage producing capability.
The electrons of the semiconductor material are joined together by the covalent bond. The
electromagnetic radiations are made of small energy particles called photons. When the photons
are incident on the semiconductor material, then the electrons become energised and starts
emitting.
The energises electron is known as the Photoelectrons. And the phenomenon of emission of
electrons is known as the photoelectric effect. The working of the Photovoltaic cell depends on
the photoelectric effect.
Construction of Photovoltaic Cell
The semiconductor materials like arsenide, indium, cadmium, silicon, selenium and gallium are
used for making the PV cells. Mostly silicon and selenium are used for making the cell.
Consider the figure below shows the constructions of the silicon photovoltaic cell. The upper
surface of the cell is made of the thin layer of the p-type material so that the light can easily enter
into the material. The metal rings are placed around p-type and n-type material which acts as
their positive and negative output terminals respectively.
The multi-crystalline or monocrystalline semiconductor material make the single unit of the PV
cell. The mono-crystal cell is cut from the volume of the semiconductor material. The multicell
are obtained from the material which has many sides.
The output voltage and current obtained from the single unit of the cell is very less. The
magnitude of the output voltage is 0.6v, and that of the current is 0.8v. The different
combinations of cells are used for increasing the output efficiency.
There are three possible ways of combining the PV cells.

Series Combination of PV Cells

If more than two cells are connected in series with each other, then the output current of the cell
remains same, and their input voltage becomes doubles. The graph below shows the output
characteristic of the PV cells when connected in series.

Parallel Combination of PV cells

In the parallel combination of the cells, the voltage remains same, and the magnitude of current
becomes double. The characteristic curve of the parallel combination of cells is represented
below.

Series-Parallel Combination of PV cells

In the series-parallel combination of cells the magnitude of both the voltage and current
increases. Thereby, the solar panels are made by using the series-parallel combination of the
cells.
The solar module is constructed by connecting the single solar cells. And the combination of the
solar modules together is known as the solar panel.

Working of PV cell

The light incident on the semiconductor material may be pass or reflected through it. The PV cell
is made of the semiconductor material which is neither a complete conductor nor an insulator.
This property of semiconductor material makes it more efficient for converting the light energy
into electric energy.
When the semiconductor material absorbs light, the electrons of the material starts emitting. This
happens because the light consists small energise particles called photons. When the electrons
absorb the photons, they become energised and starts moving into the material. Because of the
effect of an electric field, the particles move only in the one direction and develops current. The
semiconductor materials have the metallic electrodes through which the current goes out of it.
Consider the figure below shows the PV cell made of silicon and the resistive load is connected
across it. The PV cell consists the P and N-type layer of semiconductor material. These layers are
joined together to form the PN junction.
The junction is the interface between the p-type and n-type material. When the light fall on the
junction the electrons starts moving from one region to another.

How Solar Cell Install on the Solar Power Plant?

Maximum power point tracker, inverter, charge controller and battery are the name of the
apparatus used for converting the radiation into an electrical voltage.
Maximum Power Point Tracker – It’s a special kind of digital tracker that follows the location of
the sun. The efficiency of the PV cell depends on the intensity of sunlight fall on it. The power of
the sun varies with the time because of the movement of the earth. So for absorbing the
maximum light, th e panel needs to be moved along with the sun. Thereby the maximum power
point tracker is used with the solar panel.

Charge Controller – The charge controller regulates the voltage drawn from the panel. It also
protects the battery from the overcharging or overvoltage.

Inverter – The inverter converts the direct current into the alternating current and vice versa. The
conversion is essential because some of the appliances require ac supply for their work.

Types of photovoltaic panels

1. Mono Crystalline

2. Multi/ Polycrystalline

3. Amorphous crystalline

The table below will give you a comparison between various types of solar photovoltaic panels

Thin Film
(CdTe,
Sr. Mono Multi/ CIGS,
Property
no Crystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous
crystalline
etc)

Moderate (13-
1 Efficiency Highest Lowest
15%)

2 Cost Highest Moderate Lowest

Moderate
Area occupied
3 Lowest (apprx 100 Highest
per kW
sq.ft)

4 High Poor Poor Better

Temperature
 Performance

Generation in
5 Average Average Better
diffused light

In India, the most commonly available panels are polycrystalline/ multi-crystalline.

Now, before we have a look at what factors will differentiate solar PV panels based on quality,
let us first analyze what factors affect the performance of solar panels based on Indian
conditions.

Sr.
Factor Comments
No

For panels that have fixed position

without any sun tracking mechanism,
1 Direction
they should face south direction for better
output throughout the year.

Tilt/ Angle
Preferably according to the latitude of the
2 of
place
Inclination

Even a small part of shaded panel, affects

the entire output of the panels to a great
extent. Ensure the panels are placed such
that there is no shadow on them
3 Shading throughout the day. Even a single
partially shaded panel affects the output
of all other solar panels in the system.
Also, ensure that there is no dust etc on
the panel to avoid shading.

Higher the temperature, lower will be the

4 Temperature output from solar panels. Usually, panels
are rated according to standard test
conditions (i.e temperature: 25 degree
 Celsius, insolation 1000W/m2, Air Mass:
1.5). Hence, if temperature is higher than
this, your panels may give less than rated
output.

Temperature Co-efficient of solar panels: Stability is always preferred

As mentioned above, temperature affects the output of solar panels.

As temperature increases from 25 degree Celsius: current increases, voltage decreases, power
decreases. And vice versa.

Now the extent to which this increase/decrease takes place is given in terms of temperature co-
efficient as percentage change per degree of temperature change (eg. Power change = -
0.04%/degree Celsius).

Hence if temperature is say 40 degree Celsius, then rise in temperature from 25 degree Celsius is
15 degree Celsius. Hence, power will decrease by 15*0.04% i.e. 0.6% from its rated power.

Lower the value of this temperature co-efficient, better stability the panel will give under
different operating conditions.

Efficiency of solar panels: More efficient, more power in less space

The efficiency of solar panels is the amount of electrical output it can give for the amount of
solar radiation falling on it per meter square. For example: consider a solar panel with efficiency
14% and area 1.5 m2. If the amount of solar radiation falling on this panel is 1000W/m2, then this
panel is capable of producing

1000*14%*1.5 = 210W

If this energy falls for 5 hours, then this panel will produce 210*5= 1050 Wh or 1.05kWh in a
day. Higher the efficiency, higher will be amount of energy generated per unit area. So efficiency
matters if you have limited space for solar panel installation and in such a case it is better to go
for higher efficiency solar panel.

Approvals/Certifications for solar panels: A very important factor

Approvals and Certification are very important as they ensure that the solar panels meet a
minimum amount of performance and safety conditions. This factor is very important as it will
clearly eliminate low quality products from the lot.
For India, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), mandates the following
certifications for solar panels

For crystalline silicon terrestrial PV modules: IEC 61215/ IS 14286

For thin film terrestrial PV modules: IEC 61646

Also, the panels must conform to IEC 61730 part I requirements for construction and part II
requirements for testing, safety qualification

For highly corrosive atmosphere (coastal regions etc) the panels must qualify Salt Mist
Corrosion Testing as per IEC 61701/ IS 61701.

Kindly ask your supplier to present these test certificates and also check the validity of these
certificates. If the quality is genuine, it won’t be difficult to get these certificates.

Warranty and Guarantee of solar panels: Shows the confidence in the product

Since you invest a good amount to install a solar power system, its always good to assure that
the system will function properly for the next 15-20 years. Usually Indian Manufacturers give
warranty in the range 1-5 years and performance guarantee as follows:

90% of the rated output for 1st ten years

80% of the rated output for next ten years.

This obviously varies from manufacture to manufacture or product to product. Some

manufacturers also give linear performance guarantee, which is even better.

It is always preferable to check the warranty and also the terms and conditions for the same,
since you won’t like the system to fail and bear the subsequent losses.
Results

Observation Table

1 Type of cell

2 Size of cell

3 No of cell

4 Power

5 Open circuit voltage

6 Working temp range

7 Frame dimension

8 Net weight

9 Manufacturer name

10 Warranty

11 Cost

12 Certificate
 EXPERIMENT NO – 2
AIM: Study of heat transfer and concept of heat exchanger.

THEORY

What is Heat?

Heat is a form of energy. When molecules of a substance vibrate at their mean positions either
fixed or not when energy is supplied to them. As they vibrate they transfer their energy to the
surrounding molecules causing them to vibrate.

Heat energy of a body can also be defined as a form of energy that can be transferred from one body
to the other or within the body itself with a temperature difference and can be generated by a body
at the expense of other forms of energy. The SI unit of heat energy is Joule abbreviated as ‘J’. In
CGS system, however, heat is measured in ‘Calorie’ (Cal.) where 1 Calorie = 4.186 J

Heat Transfer

Heat energy can be transferred from one body to the other or from one location in a body to the
other. Study of the techniques and methods adopted to transfer heat energy is known as ‘Heat
Transfer’. To facilitate heat transfer between 2 bodies there needs to be a temperature difference
between them. This means that these bodies must be a two different temperatures one higher than
the other to allow heat to flow from one body to the other.

This means that no heat transfer occurs between 2 bodies which are at the same temperature. At the
same time, it is very important to note that heat only flows from a body at higher temperature to a
body at a lower temperature. Although this may look obvious, this law is very important from the
point of view of thermodynamics.

Heat transfer takes place in one of the three ways namely: Conduction, Convection and Radiation
We will discuss each of these methods in detail.
Conduction

Conduction is the method of transfer of heat within a body or from one body to the other due to the
transfer of heat by molecules vibrating at their mean positions. The bodies through which the heat
transfer must be in contact with each other. There is no actual movement of matter while
transferring heat from one location to the other.

Conduction occurs usually in solids where molecules in the structure are held together strongly by
intermolecular forces of attraction amongst them and so they only vibrate about their mean positions
as they receive heat energy and thus pass it to the surrounding molecules by vibrations.

Convection

Convection is the mode of heat transfer which occurs mostly in liquids and gases.In this method,
heat transfer takes place with the actual motion of matter from one place within the body to the
other. Often when we boil water we have seen bubbles and currents develop in the water on careful
observation.

This is an apt example of the convection process. The hot water at the bottom becomes lighter and
moves upwards forcing the cold and denser water at the top to come down and thus get heated up.

Radiation

Radiation is another form of heat transfer. It does not require any medium and can be used for
transfer of heat in a vacuum as well. This method uses electromagnetic waves which transfer heat
from one place to the other. The heat and light from the sun in our solar system reach our planet
using radiation only.

In fact, radiation is the most potent method of heat transfer. In winters when we sit near a fire we
feel warm without actually touching the burning wood. This is possible by radiation only.

The above example effectively demonstrates the 3 methods of heat transfer we have discussed
above. Another important point while discussing heat transfer is as follows:

Suppose an object has to be cooled down in relation to the ambient temperature. How would you
determine the amount of time required for a given article to acquire the ambient temperature? The
answer to that is given by ‘Newton’s law of Cooling’.
Concepts of heat exchanger

Heat exchangers are devices designed to transfer heat between two or more fluids—i.e., liquids,
vapors, or gases—of different temperatures. Depending on the type of heat exchanger employed,
the heat transferring process can be gas-to-gas, liquid-to-gas, or liquid-to-liquid and occur
through a solid separator, which prevents mixing of the fluids, or direct fluid contact. Other
design characteristics, including construction materials and components, heat transfer
mechanisms, and flow configurations, also help to classify and categorize the types of heat
exchangers available. Finding application across a wide range of industries, a diverse selection of
these heat exchanging devices are designed and manufactured for use in both heating and cooling
processes.

Regardless of the type and design, all heat exchangers operate under the same fundamental
principles—namely the Zeroth, First, and Second Laws of Thermodynamics—which describe
and dictate the transference or “exchange” of heat from one fluid to another.

 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that thermodynamic systems that are in
thermal equilibrium have the same temperature. Furthermore, if two systems are each in
thermal equilibrium with a third system, then the two former systems must be in
equilibrium with each other; thus, all three systems are of the same temperature.
 The First Law of Thermodynamics builds upon the Zeroth Law, establishing internal
energy (U) as another property of thermodynamic systems and indicating the influence of
heat and work on a system’s internal energy and the surrounding environment’s energy

For example, if heat flows into the system from its surroundings, there is a corresponding
increase in the internal energy of the system and a decrease in the energy of the
surrounding environment. This principle can be illustrated by the following equation,
where ΔUsystem represents the internal energy of the system, and ΔUenvironment represents
the internal energy of the surrounding environment:

 The Second Law of Thermodynamics establishes entropy (S) as an additional property of

thermodynamic systems and describes the natural and invariable tendency of the
universe, and any other closed thermodynamic system, to increase in entropy over time.
This principle can be illustrated by the following equation where ΔS represents the
change in entropy, ΔQ represents the change in the heat added to the system,
and T represents the absolute temperature:
Altogether, these principles dictate the underlying mechanisms and operations of heat
exchangers; the Zeroth law establishes temperature as a measurable property of thermodynamic
systems, the First Law describes the inverse relationship between a system’s internal energy (and
its converted forms) and that of its surrounding environment, and the Second Law expresses the
tendency for two interacting systems to move towards thermal equilibrium. Thus, heat
exchangers function by allowing a fluid of higher temperature (F1) to interact—either directly or
indirectly—with a fluid of a lower temperature (F2), which enables heat to transfer
from F1 to F2 to move towards equilibrium. This transfer of heat results in a decrease in
temperature for F1 and an increase in temperature for F2. Depending on whether the application is
aimed towards heating or cooling a fluid, this process (and devices which employ it) can be used
to direct heat towards or away from a system, respectively.

Heat Exchanger Design Characteristics

As outlined above, all heat exchangers operate under the same basic principles. However, these
devices can be classified and categorized in several different ways based on their design
characteristics. The main characteristics by which heat exchangers can be categorized include:

 Flow configuration
 Construction method
 Heat transfer mechanism
Flow Configuration

The flow configuration, also referred to as the flow arrangement, of a heat exchanger refers to
the direction of movement of the fluids within the heat exchanger in relation to each other. There
are four principal flow configurations employed by heat exchangers:

 Cocurrent flow
 Countercurrent flow
 Crossflow
 Hybrid flow
Cocurrent Flow

Cocurrent flow heat exchangers, also referred to as parallel flow heat exchangers, are heat
exchanging devices in which the fluids move parallel to and in the same direction as each other.
Although this configuration typically results in lower efficiencies than a counter flow
arrangement, it also allows for the greatest thermal uniformity across the walls of the heat
exchanger.
Countercurrent Flow

Countercurrent flow heat exchangers, also known as counter flow heat exchangers, are designed
such that the fluids move antiparallel (i.e., parallel but in opposite directions) to each other
within the heat exchanger. The most commonly employed of the flow configurations, a counter
flow arrangement typically exhibits the highest efficiencies as it allows for the greatest amount
of heat transference between fluids and, consequently, the greatest change in temperature.

Crossflow

In crossflow heat exchangers, fluids flow perpendicularly to one another. The efficiencies of heat
exchangers which employ this flow configuration fall between that of countercurrent and
cocurrent heat exchangers.

Hybrid Flow

Hybrid flow heat exchangers exhibit some combination of the characteristics of the previously
mentioned flow configurations. For example, heat exchanger designs can employ multiple flow
passes and arrangements (e.g., both counter flow and crossflow arrangements) within a single
heat exchanger. These types of heat exchangers are typically used to accommodate the
limitations of an application, such as space, budget costs, or temperature and pressure
requirements.

Figure 1, below, illustrates the various flow configurations available, including a cross/counter
flow configuration, which is an example of a hybrid flow configuration.
Figure 1 – Heat Exchanger Flow Configurations

Construction Method

While in the previous section, heat exchangers were categorized based on the type of flow
configuration employed, this section categorizes them based on their construction. The
construction characteristics by which these devices can be classified include:

 Recuperative vs. regenerative

 Direct vs. indirect
 Static vs. dynamic
 Types of components and materials employed

Recuperative vs. Regenerative

Heat exchangers can be classified as recuperative heat exchangers and regenerative heat
exchangers.

The difference between recuperative and regenerative heat exchanger systems is

that in recuperative heat exchangers (commonly called recuperators), each fluid simultaneously
flows through its own channel within the heat exchanger. On the other hand, regenerative heat
exchangers, also referred to as capacitive heat exchangers or regenerators, alternately allow
warmer and cooler fluids to flow through the same channel. Both recuperators and regenerators
can be further separated into different categories of exchangers, such as direct or indirect and
static or dynamic, respectively. Of the two types indicated, recuperative heat exchangers are
more commonly employed throughout industry.
Direct vs. Indirect

Recuperative heat exchangers employ either direct contact or indirect contact transfer processes
to exchange heat between fluids.

In direct contact heat exchangers, the fluids are not separated within the device and heat
transfers from one fluid to another through direct contact. On the other hand, in indirect heat
exchangers, the fluids remain separated from one another by thermally conductive components,
such as tubes or plates, throughout the heat transfer process. The components first receive heat
from the warmer fluid as it flows through the heat exchanger, and then transfer the heat to the
cooler fluid as it flows through. Some of the devices which employ direct contact transfer
processes include cooling towers and steam injectors, while devices which employ indirect
contact transfer processes include tubular or plate heat exchangers.

Static vs. Dynamic

There are two main types of regenerative heat exchangers—static heat exchangers and dynamic
heat exchangers. In static regenerators (also known as fixed bed regenerators), the heat
exchanger material and components remains stationary as fluids flow through the device, while
in dynamic regenerators the material and components move throughout the heat transfer process.
Both types are at risk of cross-contamination between fluid streams, necessitating careful design
considerations during manufacturing.

In one example of the static type, warmer fluid is run through one channel while cooler fluid runs
through another for a fixed period of time at the end of which, through the use of quick-operating
valves, flow is reversed such that the two fluids switch channels. An example of the dynamic
type typically employs a rotating, thermally conductive component (e.g., a drum) through which
warmer and cooler fluids continuously flow—albeit in separate, sealed-off sections. As the
component rotates, any given section alternately passes through the warmer steam and cooler
streams, allowing for the component to absorb heat from the warmer fluid and transfer the heat
to the cooler fluid as it passes through. Figure 2, below, depicts the heat transfer process within a
rotary-type regenerator with a countercurrent flow configuration.
Figure 2 – Heat Transfer in a Rotary-Type Regenerator

Heat Exchanger Components and Materials

There are several types of components which can be employed in heat exchangers, as well as a
wide range of materials used to construct them. The components and materials used depend on
the type of heat exchanger and its intended application.

Some of the most common components used to construct heat exchangers include shells, tubes,
spiral tubes (coils), plates, fins, and adiabatic wheels. Further detail on how these components
function within a heat exchanger will be provided in the next section (see Types of Heat
Exchangers).

While metals are highly suitable—and commonly used—for constructing heat exchangers due to
their high thermal conductivity, as in the case of copper, titanium, and stainless steel heat
exchangers, other materials, such as graphite, ceramics, composites, or plastics, may offer greater
advantages depending on the requirements of the heat transfer application.
Figure 3 – Heat Exchanger Classification by Construction

Heat Transfer Mechanism

There are two types of heat transfer mechanisms employed by heat exchangers—single-phase or
two-phase heat transfer.

1. In single-phase heat exchangers, the fluids do not undergo any phase change throughout
the heat transfer process, meaning that both the warmer and cooler fluids remain in the
same state of matter at which they entered the heat exchanger. For example, in water-to-
water heat transfer applications, the warmer water loses heat which is then transferred to
the cooler water and neither change to a gas or solid..
2. In two-phase heat exchangers, fluids do experience a phase change during the heat
transfer process. The phase change can occur in either or both of the fluids involved
resulting in a change from a liquid to a gas or a gas to a liquid. Typically, devices which
employ a two-phase heat transfer mechanism require more complex design
considerations than ones which employ a single-phase heat transfer mechanism. Some of
the types of two-phase heat exchangers available include boilers, condensers, and
evaporators.

Types of Heat Exchangers

Based on the design characteristics indicated above, there are several different variants of heat
exchangers available. Some of the more common variants employed throughout industry include:

 Shell and tube heat exchangers

 Double pipe heat exchangers
 Plate heat exchangers
 Condensers, evaporators, and boilers
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

The most common type of heat exchangers, shell and tube heat exchangers are constructed of a
single tube or series of parallel tubes (i.e., tube bundle) enclosed within a sealed, cylindrical
pressure vessel (i.e., shell). The design of these devices is such that one fluid flows through the
smaller tube(s), and the other fluid flows around its/their outside(s) and between it/them within
the sealed shell. Other design characteristics available for this type of heat exchanger
include finned tubes, single- or two-phase heat transfer, countercurrent flow, cocurrent flow, or
crossflow arrangements, and single, two, or multiple pass configurations.

Double Pipe Heat Exchangers

A form of shell and tube heat exchanger, double pipe heat exchangers employ the simplest heat
exchanger design and configuration which consists of two or more concentric, cylindrical pipes
or tubes (one larger tube and one or more smaller tubes). As per the design of all shell and tube
heat exchangers, one fluid flows through the smaller tube(s), and the other fluid flows around the
smaller tube(s) within the larger tube.

The design requirements of double pipe heat exchangers include characteristics from the
recuperative and indirect contact types mentioned previously as the fluids remain separated and
flow through their own channels throughout the heat transfer process. However, there is some
flexibility in the design of double pipe heat exchangers, as they can be designed with cocurrent
or countercurrent flow arrangements and to be used modularly in series, parallel, or series-
parallel configurations within a system. For example, Figure 4, below, depicts the transfer of heat
within an isolated double pipe heat exchanger with a cocurrent flow configuration.

Heat Transfer in a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Plate Heat Exchangers

Also referred to as plate type heat exchangers, plate heat exchangers are constructed of several
thin, corrugated plates bundled together. Each pair of plates creates a channel through which one
fluid can flow, and the pairs are stacked and attached—via bolting, brazing, or welding—such
that a second passage is created between pairs through which the other fluid can flow.

The standard plate design is also available with some variations, such as in plate fin or pillow
plate heat exchangers. Plate fin exchangers employ fins or spacers between plates and allow for
multiple flow configurations and more than two fluid streams to pass through the device. Pillow
plate exchangers apply pressure to the plates to increase the heat transfer efficiency across the
surface of the plate. Some of the other types available include plate and frame, plate and shell,
and spiral plate heat exchangers.

A close-up view of a plate type heat exchanger.

Condensers, Evaporators, and Boilers

Boilers, condensers, and evaporators are heat exchangers which employ a two-phase heat
transfer mechanism. As mentioned previously, in two-phase heat exchangers one or more fluids
undergo a phase change during the heat transfer process, either changing from a liquid to a gas or
a gas to a liquid.

Condensers are heat exchanging devices which take heated gas or vapor and cool it to the point
of condensation, changing the gas or vapor into a liquid. On the other hand,
in evaporators and boilers, the heat transfer process changes the fluids from liquid form to gas or
vapor form.

Heat Exchanger Selection Considerations

While there are a wide variety of heat exchangers available, the suitability of each type (and its
design) in transferring heat between fluids is dependent on the specifications and requirements of

Some of the factors that industry professionals should keep in mind when designing and
choosing a heat exchanger include:

 The type of fluids, the fluid stream, and their properties

 The desired thermal outputs
 Size limitations
 Costs
Fluid Type, Stream, and Properties

The specific type of fluids—e.g., air, water, oil, etc.—involved and their physical, chemical, and
thermal properties—e.g., phase, temperature, acidity or alkalinity, pressure and flow rate, etc.—
help determine the flow configuration and construction best suited for that particular heat
transfer application.

For example, if corrosive, high temperature, or high pressure fluids are involved, the heat
exchanger design must be able to withstand the high stress conditions throughout the heating or
cooling process. One method of fulfilling these requirements is by choosing construction
materials which hold the desired properties: graphite heat exchangers exhibit high thermal
conductivity and corrosion resistance, ceramic heat exchangers can handle temperatures higher
than many commonly used metals’ melting points, and plastic heat exchangers offer a low-cost
alternative which maintains a moderate degree of corrosion resistance and thermal conductivity.
Another method is by choosing a design suited for the fluid properties: plate heat exchangers are
capable of handling low to medium pressure fluids but at higher flow rates than other types of
heat exchangers, and two-phase heat exchangers are necessary when handling fluids which
require a phase change throughout the heat transfer process. Other fluid and fluid stream
properties that industry professionals may keep in mind when choosing a heat exchanger include
fluid viscosity, fouling characteristics, particulate matter content, and presence of water-soluble
compounds.

Thermal Outputs

The thermal output of a heat exchanger refers to the amount of heat transferred between fluids
and the corresponding temperature change at the end of the heat transfer process. The
transference of heat within the heat exchanger leads to a change of temperature in both fluids,
lowering the temperature of one fluid as heat is removed and raising the temperature of the other
fluid as heat is added. The desired thermal output and rate of heat transfer help determine the
optimal type and design of heat exchanger as some heat exchanger designs offer greater heater
transfer rates and can handle higher temperatures than other designs, albeit at a higher cost.

Size Limitations

After choosing the optimal type and design of a heat exchanger, a common mistake is purchasing
one that is too big for the given physical space. Oftentimes, it is more prudent to purchase a heat
exchanging device in a size which leaves room for further expansion or addition, rather than
choosing one which fully encompasses the space. For applications with limited space, such as in
airplanes or automobiles, compact heat exchangers offer high heat transfer efficiencies in
smaller, more lightweight solutions. Characterized by high heat transfer surface area to volume
ratios, several variants of these heat exchanging devices are available, including compact plate
heat exchangers. Typically, these devices feature ratios of ≥700 m2/m3 for gas-to-gas applications
and ≥400 m2/m3 for liquid-to-gas applications.
Costs

The cost of a heat exchanger includes not only the initial price of the equipment, but the
installation, operational, and maintenance costs over the device’s lifespan as well. While it is
necessary to choose a heat exchanger which effectively fulfills the requirements of the
applications, it is also important to keep in mind the overall costs of the chosen heat exchanger to
better determine whether the device is worth the investment. For example, an initially expensive,
but more durable heat exchanger may result in lower maintenance costs and, consequently, less
overall spend over the courses of a few years, while a cheaper heat exchanger may be initially
less expensive, but require several repairs and replacements within the same period of time.

Design Optimization

Designing the optimal heat exchanger for a given application (with particular specifications and
requirements as indicated above) involves determining the temperature change of the fluids, the
heat transfer coefficient, and the construction of the heat exchanger and relating them to the rate
of heat transfer. The two main problems which arise in pursuing this objective are calculating the
device’s rating and sizing.

The rating refers to the calculation of the thermal effectiveness (i.e., efficiency) of a heat
exchanger of a given design and size, including the rate of heat transfer, the amount of heat
transferred between fluids and their corresponding temperature change, and the total pressure
drop across the device. The sizing refers to the calculation of the required total dimensions of the
heat exchanger (i.e., the surface area available for use in the heat transfer process), including the
length, width, height, thickness, number of components, component geometries and
arrangements, etc., for an application with given process specifications and requirements. The
design characteristics of a heat exchanger—e.g., flow configuration, material, construction
components and geometry, etc.—affect both the rating and sizing calculations. Ideally, the
optimal heat exchanger design for an application finds a balance (with factors optimized as
specified by the designer) between the rating and sizing which satisfies the process specifications
and requirements at the minimum necessary cost.

Applications of Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers are devices used throughout industry for both heating and cooling processes.
Several variants of heat exchangers are available and find application in a wide range of
industries, including:

 Automotive heat exchangers (typically as car radiators)

 Chemical heat exchangers
 Cryogenic heat exchangers
 Marine heat exchangers
 Power generation heat exchangers
 Refrigeration heat exchangers
Results

Observation Table

1 Type of heat exchanger

2 Size

3 No of tubes

4 Power

5 Open circuit voltage

6 Working temp range

7 Frame dimension

8 Net weight

9 Manufacturer name

10 Warranty

11 Cost

12 Certificate
 EXPERIMENT NO - 3
AIM: Study and Trial on solar water heating system.
THEORY:
We are blessed with Solar Energy in abundance at no cost. The solar radiation incident on the
surface of the earth can be conveniently utilized for the benefit of human society. One of the
popular devices that harness the solar energy is solar hot water system (SHWS). A solar water
heater consists of a collector to collect solar energy and an insulated storage tank to store hot
water. The solar energy incident on the absorber panel coated with selected coating transfers the
hat to the riser pipes underneath the absorber panel. The water passing through the risers get
heated up and is delivered the storage tank. The re-circulation of the same water through
absorber panel in the collector raises the temperature to 80 C (Maximum) in a good sunny day.
The total system with solar collector, storage tank and pipelines is called solar hot water system.
Broadly, the solar water heating systems are of two categories. They are: closed loop system and
open loop system. In the first one, heat exchangers are installed to protect the system from hard
water obtained from borewells or from freezing temperatures in the cold regions. In the other
type, either thermosyphon or forced circulation system, the water in the system is open to the
atmosphere at one point or other. The thermosyphon systems are simple and relatively
inexpensive. They are suitable for domestic and small institutional systems, provided the water is
treated and potable in quality. The forced circulation systems employ electrical pumps to
circulate the water through collectors and storage tanks.
The choice of system depends on heat requirement, weather conditions, heat transfer fluid
quality, space availability, annual solar radiation, etc. The SHW systems are economical,
pollution free and easy for operation in warm countries like ours.
Based on the collector system, solar water heaters can be of two types.
Flat Plate Collectors (FPC) based Solar Water Heaters
The solar radiation is absorbed by Flat Plate Collectors which consist of an insulated outer
metallic box covered on the top with glass sheet. Inside there are blackened metallic absorber
(selectively coated) sheets with built in channels or riser tubes to carry water. The absorber
absorbs the solar radiation and transfers the heat to the flowing water. There are 60 BIS approved
manufacturers of Solar Flat Plate Collectors.
Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC) based Solar Water Heaters
Evacuated Tube Collector is made of double layer borosilicate glass tubes evacuated for
providing insulation. The outer wall of the inner tube is coated with selective absorbing material.
This helps absorption of solar radiation and transfers the heat to the water which flows through
the inner tube. There are 44 MNRE approved ETC based solar water heating suppliers.

1
Solar water heating is now a mature technology. Wide spread utilization of solar water heaters
can reduce a significant portion of the conventional energy being used for heating water in
homes, factories and other commercial and institutional establishments. Internationally the
market for solar water heaters has expanded significantly during the last decade.

Salient Features of Solar Water Heating System

Solar Hot Water System turns cold water into hot water with the help of sun’s rays.

 Around 60 deg. – 80 deg. C temperature can be attained depending  on solar radiation,
weather conditions and solar collector system efficiency.
  Hot water for homes, hostels, hotels, hospitals, restaurants, dairies, industries etc. 

 Can be installed on roof-tops, building terrace and open ground where 
there is no shading,
south orientation of collectors and over-head tank above SWH system.

 SWH system generates hot water on clear sunny days  (maximum), partially clouded
(moderate) but not in rainy or heavy overcast day.
  Only soft and potable water can be used.

 Stainless Steel is used for smalltanks whereas Mild Steel tanks with anticorrosion coating
inside are used for large tanks.
  
Solar water heaters (SWHs) of 100-300 litres capacity are suited for domestic application.
 
Larger systems can be used in restaurants, guest houses, hotels, hospitals, industries etc.

Fuel Savings:
A 100 liters capacity SWH can replace an electric geyser for residential use and saves 1500 units
of electricity annually.
Avoided utility cost on generation
The use of 1000 SWHs of 100 liters capacity each can contribute to a peak load shaving of 1 MW.
Environmental benefits
A SWH of 100 liters capacity can prevent emission of 1.5 tonnes of carbon dioxide per year.
Life: 15-20 years
Approximate cost: Rs.15000- 20,000 for a 100 liters capacity system and Rs.110-150 per
installed liter for higher capacity systems
Payback period: 3-4 years when electricity is replaced 4-
5 years when furnace oil is replaced 5-
6 years when coal is replaced
Though the initial investment for a solar water heater is high compared to available conventional
alternatives, the return on investment has become increasingly attractive with the increase in
prices of conventional energy. The payback period depends on the site of installation, utilization
pattern and fuel replaced.

2
Evacuated tube collector (ETC) based solar water heater
DESIGN CONSIDERATION

1. Structure of solar water heater

Component description:
HEAT PIPES: An evacuated-tube collector contains several individual glass tubes,
each containing an aluminum fin and a heat pipe. The heat pipe transfers heat efficiently
to the water in the tank.
WATER TANK: The storage tank is made of three layers: inner shell, intermediate
foam insulation and outer cladding. The shell is built to hold maximum water pressure
of 150 psi. Shell material is corrosion-proof, food-grade stainless steel. Foam insulation
thickness is designed to self-sustainingly maintain the tank water temperature during
continuous overcast days in the coldest wintertime. Outer cladding is normally
galvanized sheet metal, providing a fine surface finish and a long-lasting life.
EVACUATED TUBES: Top-quality double-walled tubes are used. There is an
aluminum or copper-coated mirror on the inside surface of the inner glass wall. The
mirror well traps thermal energy inside the tube. On the metal mirror layer, there is
selective absorption coating, which converts over 99% of the energy from visible and
invisible lights.
 The outer glass wall acts as glazing, creating a vacuum and protecting the coating
against the elements. On the inner surface of tube ends, a silver-colored getter material
is applied, which absorbs the remaining gases inside the tube’s hollow space. Deducting
the absorption and surface reflection of the outer wall of the tube, the overall efficiency
of the tube is over 92%.
REFLECTOR: Reflector is silver-coated reflecting panel. The reflectors can improve
solar system thermal efficiency and reinforce the frame structure.
FRAMES: Frame is made of rustproof material. A frame may have full-length rear legs,
suitable for flat surface installation, or shortened rear legs, suitable for sloped surface
installation. Length of rear legs could be cut to fit at site.

2. Working principle

Principle of vacuum tube

The vacuum tube is composed of inner tube, outer tube, selective absorption layer,
vacuum space, inspiratory layer. The outer wall of the inner tube is the selective
absorption layer. The space between outer tube and inner tube is the vacuum space. At
the bottom of the outer tube, there is an inspiratory layer which can be used to absorb
the remnant air.

Working principle of solar water heater

The vacuum tubes absorb solar energy, and the aluminum fin passes the heat energy
to the heat pipe. The liquid medium in the heat pipe is heated by the heat energy, then
turns into a gas medium. The gas medium flows up to the top of the heat pipe and
transfers the energy to the cold water in the tank, subsequently reverting back to a liquid
medium and flowing down. As the process continues, the water in the tank will become
the hot water.

Fig 3.1 Solar water heater working sketch map

3. Technical data and product description

Technical data

Model ThermoPower-VTS15-HP ThermoPower-VTS30-HP

Number of Tubes 15 30
Gross area 24.5 ft2 47.9 ft2
Tank Volumetric 40 gallons 79 gallons
Capacity
Weight Empty 143.3 lbs 198.4 lbs
Fill weight 474.0 lbs 925.9 lbs
Length of Tubes 70.9 in 70.9 in
Outer tube diameter 2.3 in 2.3 in
Tube thickness .06 in .06 in
Tube Thermal Expansion 3.3×10-6℃ 3.3×10-6℃
Absorptive coating Graded Al-N/Al Graded Al-N/Al
Absorbency >92%(AM1.5) >92%(AM1.5)
Emittance 7%(100℃) 7%(100℃)
Vacuum P<0.005Pa P<0.005Pa
Heat Loss <0.8W/㎡ <0.8W/㎡
Insulation Polyurethane,55mm Polyurethane,55mm
Stagnation Temperature <220℃ <220℃
Maximum working
90℃ 90℃
Temperature
Maximum Working 0.6MPa 0.6MPa
Pressure of all circuits
Working pressure 0.4MPa 0.4MPa
Maximum wind and
0.49kN/m² 0.49kN/m²
snow load
Tilt Angle 45° 45°
Inlet and Outlet ½ in ½ in
T&P Valve Port ½ in ½ in
Frame Aluminum Alloy Aluminum Alloy
RESULTS
Model
Number of Tubes
Gross area
Tank Volumetric
Capacity
Weight Empty
Fill weight
Length of Tubes
Outer tube diameter
Tube thickness
Tube Thermal Expansion
Absorptive coating
Absorbency
Emittance
Vacuum
Heat Loss
Insulation
Stagnation Temperature
Maximum working
temperature
Maximum Working
Pressure of all circuits
Working pressure
Maximum wind and
snow load
Tilt Angle
Inlet and Outlet
T&P Valve Port
Frame
 EXPERIMENT NO - 4
AIM: To determine the thermal conductivity of given metal rod

APPARATUS: Experimental setup of metal rod

THEORY:

Write the theory on following points

1. Definition of Heat transfer, applications, three modes of heat transfer with their governing
laws, definition of thermal conductivity, and thermal conductivity of important materials
2. Terms in three dimensional heat transfer equation and definition of thermal diffusivity
3. Variation of thermal conductivity with temperature in solids, liquids and gases
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of the aluminum rod of 200mm test section. Heat is provided by means of
band heater at one end and released through water jacket arrangement at another end.
Thermocouples are provided at suitable points to measure the surface and water temperatures.
Proper insulation is provided to minimize the heat loss in radial direction. The temperature is shown
by means of the digital indicator on the control panel, which also consists of heater regulator and
other accessories with instrumentation having good aesthetic looks and safe design.
PROCEDURE:
1. Give necessary electrical and water connections to the instrument.
2. Switch on the MCB and console ON to activate the control panel.
3. Set the voltage in the range of 70-80 volts
4. Start the cooling water supply through the water jacket (make sure it should not to exceed
3 l pm).
5. Note the temperature at different points, when steady state is reached.
6. Repeat the experiment for different heater input.
7. After the experiment is over, bring the voltage to minimum, switch off the heater and
then main, allow the water to flow for some time in the water jacket and then stop it.
SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Type of Material = Aluminium
2. Diameter of the metal rod=50mm
3. Test length of the metal rod=200mm
4. Distance between two consecutive thermocouples=50mm
5. Distance between First end and first thermocouple, last thermocouple and last end=25mm
6. Thermocouple type-K type (Cr-Al)
7. Maximum voltage and current range=150 volts
4
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not give heater input without the supply of water.
2. Input should be given very slowly.
3. Run the water in the jacket for about 5 min after the experiment.
4. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
5. Check all the electrical connections before running.
6. Before starting and after finishing the experiment the heater controller should be in off
position.
7. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the whole system.

5
 EXPERIMENT NO -5
AIM: To determine Stefan Boltzmann Constant for radiation heat transfer
APPARATUS: Stefan Boltzmann Apparatus, stop watch
THEORY: Write theory on the following topics
1. Definition of radiation heat transfer
2. Characteristics of radiation heat transfer
3. Stefan Boltzmann law
4. Intensity of radiation
5. Lambert’s cosine law
6. Solar radiation and greenhouse effect
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of
1. Copper hemispherical enclosure with insulation.
2. SS jacket to hold the hot water.
3. Overhead water heater with quick release mechanism and the thermostat to generate
and dump the hot water.
4. Heater regulator to supply the regulated power input to the heater.
5. Thermocouples at suitable position to measure the surface temperatures of the absorber
body.
6. Digital Temperature Indicator with channel selector to measure the temperatures.
7. Control panel to house all the instrumentation.

With this the whole arrangement is mounted on an aesthetically designed self-sustained MS

powder coated frame with a separate control panel.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill water slowly into the overhead water heater.
2. Switch on the supply mains and console.
3. Switch on the heater and regulate the power input using the heater regulator. (Say 60 – 85
C)֩
4. After water attains the maximum temperature, open the valve of the heater and dump to
the enclosure jacket.
5. Wait for about few seconds to allow hemispherical enclosure to attain uniform temperature
– the chamber will soon reach the equilibrium. Note the enclosure temperature.
6. Insert the Test specimen with the sleeve into its position and record the temperature at
different instants of time using the stop watch.
7. Plot the variation of specimen temperature with time and get the slope of temperature
versus time variation at the time t = 0 sec
 8. Calculate the Stefan Boltzman’s constant using the equations provided.
9. Repeat the experiment 3 to 4 times and calculate the average value to obtain the better
results.
SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Material of the specimen=copper
2. Mass of the specimen=4.7 g
3. Specific heat of the specimen=410J/kgK
4. Diameter of the specimen=15mm
5. Type of thermocouple= K type (Cr-Al)
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check all the electrical connections.
2. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
3. Do not switch on the heater without water in the overhead tank.
4. Do not turn the heater regulator to the maximum as soon as the equipment is started.
5. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the whole system.

8
9
 EXPERIMENT NO - 6
AIM:
Study and compare various heat exchangers such as radiators, evaporators, condensers, plate heat
exchangers etc.
THEORY

Heat exchangers are the device in which the heat is transferred from one fluid to another.
Exchange of heat is required at many industrial operations as well as chemical process.
Common examples of heat exchanger are radiator of car, condenser of a refrigeration
unit or cooling coil of an air conditioner.

Heat exchangers are of three types –

i) Transfer type – in which both fluids pass through the exchanger and heat
gets transferred through the separating walls between the fluids.
ii) Storage type – in this, firstly the hot fluid passes through a medium having high
heat capacity and then cold fluid is passed through the medium to collect the
heat. Thus hot and cold fluids are alternately passed through the medium.
iii) Direct contact type – in this type, the fluids are separated but they mix with
each other and heat passes directly from one fluid to other.
Transfer type heat exchanger are the type most widely used in transfer type heat
exchangers, three type of flow arrangements are used, viz. parallel, counter or cross
flow. In parallel flow, both the fluids flow in the same direction while in counter flow,
they flow in the opposite direction. In cress flow, they flow at right angle to each other.

The ‘DYNAMIC’ apparatus consists of two concentric tubes in which fluid pass. The hot
fluid is hot water, which is obtained from an electric geyser. Hot water flow through the
inner tube, in one direction. Cold fluid is cold water, which flows through the annulus.
Control valves are provided so that direction of cold water can be kept parallel or
opposite to that of hot water. Thus the heat exchanger can be operated either as parallel
or counter flow heat exchanger. The temperatures are measured with thermometers. Thus,
the heat transfer rate, heat transfer coefficient, L. M. T. D. and effectiveness of heat
exchanger can be calculated for both parallel and counter flow.

SPECIFICATIONS-
1) Heat exchanger – a) Inner tube - θ 12.7mm O. D., θ 11.7mm I. D. copper tube
b) Outer tube - θ 25mm NB G. I. Pipe.
c) Length of heat exchanger is – 1 m.
2) Electric heater – 3 kw capacity to supply hot water.
3) Valves for flow and direction control – 5 Nos.
0
4) Thermometers to measure temperatures – 10 to 110 C – 4 Nos.
10
 5) Measuring flask and stop clock for flow measurement.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE –
1. Start the water supply. Adjust the water supply on hot and cold sides. Firstly, keep the
valves V2 and V3 closed and V1 – V4 opened so that arrangement is parallel flow.
2. Put few drops of oil in thermometer pockets. Put the thermometer in the
thermometer pockets.
3. Switch ‘ON’ the geyser. Temperature of water will start rising. After temperature
become steady, note down the readings and fill up the observation table.
4. Repeat the experiment by changing the flow.
5. Now open the valves V2 and V3 and then close the valves V1 and V4. The
arrangement is now counter flow.
6. Wait until the steady state is reached and note down the readings.
OBSERVATION TABLE
HOT WATER COLD WATER

TYPE OF TEMPERATURE TIME FOR 1 TEMPERATURE TIME FOR 1

FLOW LIT. WATER LIT. WATER

IN ˚COUT ˚C Xh Sec. IN ˚COUT ˚C Xc Sec.

PARALLEL

FLOW

COUNTER

FLOW

PRECAUTIONS –
1) Never switch on the geyser unless there is water supply through it.
2) If the red indicator on geyser goes off during operation, increase the water
supply, because it indicates that water temperature exceeds the set limit.
3) Ensure steady water flow rate and temperature before noting down the
readings, as fluctuating water supply can give erratic results.
13
 EXPERIMENT NO – 7
AIM:
Report on visit to wind power generation plant / biogas plant / hydraulic power plant.
THEORY:
In this particular visit, students are expected to visit wind power generation plant/ biogas plant/ hydraulic power
plant where they can learn thorough things about the plant and processes of the
ower generation in those plants. They are also intended to write a Technical Report on the

Layout of Hydroelectric Power Plants

Hydroelectric power plants convert the hydraulic potential energy from water into electrical energy. Such plants
are suitable were water with suitable head are available. The layout covered in this article is just a simple one and
only cover the important parts of hydroelectric plant.The different parts of a hydroelectric power plant are

(1) Dam
Dams are structures built over rivers to stop the water flow and form a reservoir.The reservoir stores the water
flowing down the river. This water is diverted to turbines in power stations. The dams collect water during the rainy
season and stores it, thus allowing for a steady flow through the turbines throughout the year. Dams are also used
for controlling floods and irrigation. The dams should be water-tight and should be able to withstand the pressure
exerted by the water on it. There are different types of dams such as arch dams, gravity dams and buttress dams.
The height of water in the dam is called head race.

(2) Spillway
A spillway as the name suggests could be called as a way for spilling of water from dams. It is used to provide for
the release of flood water from a dam. It is used to prevent over toping of the dams which could result in damage or
failure of dams. Spillways could be controlled type or uncontrolled type. The uncontrolled types start releasing
water upon water rising above a
particular level. But in case of the
controlled type, regulation of
flow is possible.

(3) Penstock and Tunnel

Penstocks are pipes which carry
water from the reservoir to the
turbines inside power station.
They are usually made of steel
and are equipped with gate
systems.Water under high
pressure flows through the
penstock. A tunnel serves the
same purpose as a penstock. It is
used when an obstruction is
present between the dam and
power station such as a mountain.

(4) Surge Tank

Surge tanks are tanks connected to the water conductor system. It serves the purpose of reducing water hammering
in pipes which can cause damage to pipes. The sudden surges of water in penstock is taken by the surge tank, and
when the water requirements increase, it supplies the collected water thereby regulating water flow and pressure
inside the penstock.
(5) Power Station
Power station contains a turbine coupled to a generator (see the cross section of a power house on the left). The
water brought to the power station rotates the vanes of the turbine producing torque and rotation of turbine shaft.
This rotational torque is transferred to the generator and is converted into electricity. The used water is released
through the tail race. The difference between head race and tail race is called gross head and by subtracting the
frictional losses we get the net head available to the turbine for generation of electricity.

Biogas Plants
Many developing countries are encouraging for the installation of biogas plants to meet out the demand of fuel.
India is one of the pioneer countries in biogas technology. U.P. Government in the years 1957 and 1960 established
a permanent station named ‘Gobar gas Research Station’ at Ajitmal in Etawah district.
There are many other institutions where research and development programmes are earned out such as Khadi and
Village Industries Commission (KVIC), Bombay, the Gram Vikas Sansthan, Lucknow and National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur.
The Non- conventional Energy Development Agency (NEDA) of Uttar Pradesh has already installed several night
soil-based biogas plants throughout the state.
Benefits from Biogas Plants:
In Asia, biogas is used mainly for cooking and lighting purposes. In addition, there are many other advantages in
installing the biogas plants. It is used in internal combustion engines to power pumps and electric generators.
Sludge is used as fertilizer. The most economical benefits are minimising environmental pollution and meeting the
demand of energy for various purposes.
Feedstock Materials:
There are two sources of biomass i.e. plant and animal for biogas production. The biomass obtained from plants is
aquatic or terrestrial in origin, while biomass generated from animals includes cattle dung manure from poultry,
goat, sheep and slaughter houses, fisheries waste, etc.
Cattle dung is most potent for biogas production. Besides dung (gobar), agricultural residue, apple pomade and
deteriorated or dumped wheat grains are also proved to be good source for biogas production.
Biogas Production (Anaerobic Digestion):
The anaerobic digestion is carried out in an air tight cylindrical tanks which is called digester. A digester is made up
of concrete bricks and cement or steel. It has a side opening (charge pit) into which organic materials for digestion
are incorporated.
There lies a cylindrical container above the digester to collect the gas. A diagram of single stage digester for gobar
gas plant is shown in Fig.. It is noticed that after 50 days, sufficient gas is produced in gas tank, which is used for
house hold purposes. Usually, digesters are burned in soil in order to benefit from insulation provided by soil. In
cold climate, digester can be heated.
Metabolic activities of methanogens are quite peculiar. Carbon dioxide fixation, Calvin cycle, serine or hexulose
pathways are absent in them.
Several coenzymes such as methyl coenzymes M, hydroxymethyl coenzyme M, coenzyme F420, coenzyme F430,
component B, methanofuran or carbon dioxide reducing factor, methanopterin and formaldehyde activating factors
are present.
The primary reaction in which carbon dioxide formation occurs is given below.
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
The secondary reaction takes place in the presence of sufficient hydrogen.
CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O
Other reactions showing methane formation from various substrates are given below:
4CH3OH → 3CH4 + CO2 + 2H2O
4HCOOH → CH4 + 3CO2 + 2H2O
CH3COOH → 12CH4 + 12CO2
 EXPERIMENT NO – 8
AIM:- Trace the flue gas path and water steam circuit with the help of boiler model and
Write all parts.
Theory:-
Boiler: - A steam boiler is a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by combustion of
fuel.
Classification of Boiler:
Boilers are classified on the basis of following-
1. According to contents in the Tube:
a) Fire tube boiler: In fire tube boilers, the flue gases pass through the tube and water surround
them.
b).Water tube boiler: In water tube boiler, water flows inside the tubes and the hot flue gases flow
outside the tubes.
2. According to the pressure of steam:
a). Low pressure boiler: A boiler which generates steam at a pressure of below 80 bars is called low
pressure boiler. Examples-Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler etc.
b). High pressure boiler: A boiler which generates steam at a pressure higher then 80 bar is called
high pressure boiler
BOILER ACCESSORIES:
The appliances installed to increase the efficiency of the boiler are known as the boiler accessories.
The commonly used accessories are:

Economiser: Economiser is a one type of heat exchange which exchanges the some parts of the
waste heat of flue gas to the feed water. It is placed between the exit of the furnace and entry into
the chimney. Generally economiser is placed after the feed pump because in economiser water may
transfer into vapour partially, which creates a priming problem in feed pump water into the boiler
drum. If economiser is used before feed pump it limits the temperature rise of water. It consists of
vertical cast iron tubes attached with scraper. The function of scraper is to remove the root
deposited on the tube, mechanically.

Air Pre-heater:- The function of air pre-heater is to increase the temperature of air before it enters
the furnace. It is installed between the economiser and the chimney. The air required for the
purpose of combustion is drawn through the air pre-heater and its temperature is raised when
passed through ducts. The preheated air gives higher furnace temperature which results in more
heat transfer to the water and reduces the fuel consumption.

A thermal power generating plant works based on Rankine Cycle. There are mainly three primary inputs given to a
thermal power generating plants for producing electricity. These three most essential elements are coal, air, and
water. Coal is fuel here because we are going to draw the flow diagram of a coal thermal power generating plants.
Coal creates required heat energy by combustion in the furnace. Air is supplied to the furnace to accelerate
combustion rate of the coal and to continue the flow of flue gases inside the heating system. Water is required in a
thermal power plant inside a boiler to produce steam. This steam drives the turbine. The turbine is coupled to the
shaft of a generator which generates electrical power as the output of the system.
Depending on these three primary inputs there are three basic flow circuits work on a thermal power generating
plant.
 Flow diagram of a coal thermal power generating plant

Coal and ash Circuit

The coal is transported from coal supplying authorities to the coal storage yard of the generating plant. From here
the coal is delivered to the pulverized coal plants with the help of conveyor. After removing unwanted substances
from the coal, it is pulverized in coal dust. Pulverisation makes the coal more efficient for burning. After
combustion of the coal, the ash is collected to the ash handling plant. Then the ash is finally collected to the ash
storage yard.
Air Circuit

Air is supplied to the furnace with forced draught fans. But it is not directly charged to the boiler furnace before it is
charged to the boiler furnace it is passed through an air preheater. In air preheater, the heat of the exhaust flue gases
is transferred to the inlet air before it enters in the furnace. In the furnace, this air supplies required oxygen for the
combustion. Then this air carries the generated heat and flue gases due to the combustion through the boiler tubes
surfaces. Here significant part of the heat is transferred to the boiler. The flue gases then pass through the
superheater where the steam coming from boiler gets further heated up to the spearheading temperatures. Then the
flue gases come to economizer where some of the remaining portions of the heat of flue gases are utilized for
increasing temperature of the water before it enters in the boiler. The flue gases then pass through air preheater
where a portion remaining heat is transferred to the inlet air before it enters in the boiler furnace. After passing
through the air preheater, the gases ultimately goes to the chimney by induced draught fans. Normally in thermal
power plants, forced draught is used at the entry of air from the atmosphere and induced draught is used at the exit
of flue gases from the system through the chimney.

Water Steam Circuit

The water steam circuit of a thermal power generating plant is a semi-closed circuit. Here comparatively not much
water is required to supply to the boiler from external sources since same water is reused again and again by
condensing the steam after its mechanical work of rotating turbine. Here, water is first taken from a river or any
other suitable natural source of water. This water then is taken to the water treatment plant for removing unwanted
particles and substances from the water. This water is then fed to the boiler through economiser. In the boiler, the
water is converted into steam. This steam then goes to the super-heater, where the steam is heated up to the
superheating temperature. The superheated steam then goes to the turbine through a series of nozzles. At the outlet
of these nozzles, the high pressure and high-temperature steam suddenly expands and hence gets kinetic energy.
Because of this kinetic energy, the steam rotates the turbine. The turbine is coupled with generator and generator
produces alternating electricity to the grid. Suddenly expanded steam exhaust from the turbine to the condenser.
Where the steam is condensed back to the water with the help of water circulating cooling system associated with
cooling towers. This condensed water is then fed back to the boiler through the economizer. The water supply from
an external source of water is limited here because of using condensed steam in the boiler system of the thermal
power generating plant
 EXPERIMENT NO – 9
AIM To study the constructional features of BABCOCK and WILCOX BOILER.
APPARATUS
A model of BABCOCK and WILCOX BOILER.
INTRODUCTION
It is horizontal, stationary multi-water tube boiler.
The various fittings of this boiler are:
1. Feed Check Valve
2. Pressure gauge
3. Water Level Indicator
4. Safety valve
5. Steam Stop Valve
6. Blow off Cock
7. Fusible Plug
8. Super Heater
These are used in the boiler to increase the temperature of steam above its saturation
temperature. Passing the steam through a small set of inclined tubes and hot gases over them
does this. Super heated steam is absolutely essential for power generation.
 Figure of BABCOCK and WILCOX BOILER
WORKING
Water is fed into the boiler shell through the feed check valve. It goes into the cylindrical
horizontal tube and inclined tubes. The water level gauge indicates the level of water. Coal is
added to the grate and fired. Water in the upper portion of the tubes get heated first and rises up
due to decreased density and passes into the drum when steam and water are separated. Now
cold water from the down take header comes to take the place. In this way natural circulation of
water is carried on by keeping the tubes inclined to an angle of about 15O to the horizontal.
During the first turn of the super heater becomes super heated steam. Now the super heated
steam coming out through the super heater is supplied through the steam stop valve. The damper
controls the rate of burning and thereby the steam generation. A chain passing through a set of
pulleys operates the damper. At the end of the down take header, a mud box is connected from
where impurities can be removed. As shown in the sketch, the boiler is provided with two
INSPECTION DOORS, Compared to the fire tube boiler, evaporative capacity, the pressure of
steam and thermal efficiency of the boiler will be higher. It is suitable for small size thermal
power plants and other industrial units

Advantages
1 Steam generation capacity is high. It is about 2000 to 40000 kg/hr.
2 It occupies less space.
3 Replacement of defective tubes is easy.
4 It is the only boiler that is used to generate large quantity of heat in power stations.
5 The draught loss is minimum.
6 Inspection of this types of boiler can be done anytime during its working.
Disadvantages
1 High maintenance cost.
2 It is not much suitable for impure and sedimentary water. In case of impure and
sedimentary water, scale may deposit in the tubes and this leads to overheating and
bursting of tubes. That’s why water treatment is must before feeding into the boiler.
3 Continuously supply of feed water is required for the working. In the case if feed water is
not continuously supplied even for a short period of time, the boiler gets overheated.
Water level must be carefully watched during the operation of the Babcock and Wilcox
boiler

AIM: To study the constructional features of Lancashire Boiler

APPARATUS: LANCASHIRE BOILER
Lancashire boiler is a horizontal internally fired, natural circulation fire tube boiler. This boiler
rises steam upto a pressure of its bar and maximum evaporating capacity of 8500 Kg of steam
per hour. This boiler is very widely used in sugar mills and chemicals products industries where
the steam is required for processing work.
CONSTRUCTION:
The boiler consist of a horizontal shell placed on a brick work tubes of diameter about 0.4 times
of that of the boiler shell and runs through out its length. In each of these flue inside of their front
end. The space underneath the grate is the ash pit.
The brick work setting is designed so as the provide an enclosed chamber for each of the flue
tubes at the rear end of the boiler shell, which are connected to the bottom central channel which
unturn is connected to the side channel 1 and 2 at their front end. The two side channel are
connected at their rear end to a common rear passage which is connected to the chimney.

The boiler shell is filled with water to three-fourth of its volume which will submerge both the
flue tubes. The remaining space above the surface of the water in the boiler shell is the steam
space.
PATH OF FLUE GASES:
When flue is charged on the furnace door sufficient amount of air also enters the area of the grate
the hot gases produced by burning of the fuel initially in their first run pass along the length of
the flue tube through them from the front end to the rear end of the boiler. As these hot gases
pass through the flue tubes heat transfer takes place from the hot gases to the water through less
emerges from both the flue tubes into the respective near enclosed chamber provided at the rear
end of the boiler shell. Now on their second run from the rear enclosed chamber provided at they
pass downwards and unite in the bottom central channel and travel from the rear end to the front
end of the boiler. During this path of the hot gases the heat transfer takes place from the hot
gases to the water through the bottom portion of the boiler shell. Exposed to the bottom central
channel. After passing along divided at the front end of the boiler shell and enter into the side
channel 1 and 2 and in their third run pass through them to the rear end of the boiler. The hot
gases emerging at the rear end of the side channel 1 and 2 reunite in the rear passage and make
their exit to the chimney through the rear passage. During the path of the hot gases in the side
channel 1 and 2 the heat transfer takes place from the hot gases the water through the portion of
the boiler shell exposed to the side channels. The steam accumulated in the steam space is taken
out through the steam stop valve.
The boiler is mounted with essential mounting and accessories like steam stop valve, safety
valve blow of valve pressure gauge, water gauge etc. at shown at their appropriate places. The
super heater which consists of a set of U tubes is placed at the rear end of the shell. The flue
gases before they are passed into the bottom central channel heats up the steam in the super
heater tubes and convert into super heater steam.
Advantages
1 It has high thermal efficiency; the thermal efficiency is about 80 to 90%.
2 It is easy to operate.
3 It can easily meet the load requirement.
4 Easy to maintain.
5 Generate a large amount of steam and hence more reliable.
6 Low consumption of electricity due to natural circulation.
Disadvantages
1 It is a low-pressure type boiler, so high-pressure steam is not produced.
2 Tedious maintenance of brickwork.
3 It has a limited grate area due to the small diameter of the flue tubes.
4 The steam production rate is low. It is about 9000 kg/hr
5 Corrosion occurs in the water legs.
 EXPERIMENT NO –10

Aim:- To study different types of steam nozzles

Theory:-
Steam Nozzles and Types
Nozzle is a duct by flowing through which the velocity of a fluid increases at the expense of
pressure drop. if the fluid is steam, then the nozzle is called as Steam nozzle.
The flow of steam through nozzles may be takenas adiabatic expansion. The steam possesses a
very high velocity at the end of the expansion, and the enthalpy decreases as expansion occurs.
Friction exists between the steam and the sides of the nozzle; heat is produced as the result of the
resistance to the flow. The phenomenon of super saturation occurs in the steam flow through
nozzles. This is because of the time lag in the condensation of the steam during the expansion.

The area of such duct having minimum cross-section is known as throat.

A fluid is called compressible if its density changes with the change in pressure brought about by
the flow.

If the density changes very little or does not changes, the fluid is said to be incompressible.
Generally the gases and vapours are compressible, whereas liquids are incompressible.

Types of Nozzles:

There are three types of nozzles

1. Convergent nozzle
2. Divergent nozzle
3. Convergent-divergent nozzle.
Convergent Nozzle:

A typical convergent nozzle is shown in the Fig.1. In a convergent nozzle, the cross sectional
area decreases continuously from its entrance to exit. It is used in a case where the back pressure
is equal to or greater than the critical pressure ratio.
 Fig 1. Convergent nozzle

Divergent nozzle:

The cross sectional area of divergent nozzle increases continuously from its entrance to exit. It is
used in a case where the back pressure is less than the critical pressure ratio.

Fig 2. Divergent nozzle

Convergent – Divergent nozzle:

In this condition, the cross sectional area first decreases from its entrance to the throat and then
again increases from throat to the exit. This case is used in the case where the back pressure is
less than the critical pressure. Also, in present day application, it is widely used in many types of
steam turbines.
 Fig 3. Convergent-Divergent nozzle

Flow of steam Through Nozzle

Supersaturated flow or metastable flow of in Nozzles: As steam expands in the nozzle, the
pressure and temperature in it drop, and it is likely that the steam start condensing when it strikes
the saturation line. But this is not always the situation. Due to the high velocities, the time up to
which the steam resides in the nozzle is small, and there may not be sufficient time for the
needed heat transfer and the formation of liquid droplets due to condensation. As a result, the
condensation of steam is delayed for a while. This phenomenon is known as super saturation,
and the steam that remains in the wet region without holding any liquid is known as
supersaturated steam. The locus of points where condensation occurs regardless of the initial
temperature and pressure at the entrance of the nozzle is called the Wilson line. The Wilson line
generally lies between 4 and 5 percent moisture curves in the saturation region on the h-s
diagram in case of steam, and is often taken as 4 percent moisture line. The phenomenon of
super saturation is shown on the h-s chart below:

Fig 4. The h-s diagram for the expansion of steam in the nozzle

Effects of Supersaturation:

The following are the effects of supersaturation in a nozzle.

1. The temperature at which the steam becomes supersaturated will be less than the
saturation temperature corresponding to that pressure. Therefore, supersaturated steam will
havethe density more than that of equilibrium condition which results in the increase in the mass
of steam discharged.
2. Supersaturation causesthe specific volume and entropy of the steam to increase.
3. Supersaturation reduces the heat drop. Thus the exit velocity of the steam is reduced.
4. Supersaturation increases the dryness fraction of the steam.
Effect of Friction on Nozzles:

1. Entropy is increased.
2. The energy available decreases.
3. Velocity of flow at the throat get decreased.
4. Volume of flowing steam is decreased.
5. Throat area required to discharge a given mass of steam is increased.
Continuity and steady flow energy equations through a certain section of the nozzle:
Where m denotes the mass flow rate, v is the specific volume of the steam, A is the area of cross-
section and C is the velocity of the steam.
For steady flow of the steam through a certain apparatus, principle of conservation of energy
states:

h1 + C12/2 + gz1 + q = h2 + C22/2 + gz2 + w

For nozzles, changes in potential energies are negligible, w = 0 and q = 0.

h1 + C12 /2 = h2 + C22 /2

which is the expression for the steady state flow energy equation.

Things to remember

 Nozzle is a duct by flowing through which the velocity of a fluid increases at the expense
of pressure drop. if the fluid is steam, then the nozzle is called as Steam nozzle.
 A fluid is said to be compressible if its density changes with the change in pressure
brought about by the flow.
 If the density does not changes or changes very little, the fluid is said to be
incompressible. Usually the gases and vapours are compressible, whereas liquids are
incompressible.
 There are three types of nozzles

1. Convergent nozzle
2. Divergent nozzle
3. Convergent-divergent nozzle.
 Effect of Friction on Nozzles:

1. Entropy is increased.
2. The energy available decreases.
3. Velocity of flow at the throat get decreased.
4. Volume of flowing steam is decreased.
5. Throat area required to discharge a given mass of steam is increased.
 The momentum equation in the steam turbine is given as:
v = A.C