INFORMATION SYSTEMS ( IS )

Definition:

Information system is a set of interrelated components that collect, manipulate, and

disseminate( output) data and information and provide a feedback mechanism to meet an objective.

IS components:

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. Network
5. Procedures
6. People

Data vs information:

 Data – consists of raw facts, such as employee name, number , salary etc.
 Information – a collection of raw facts

Characteristics of valuable information:

1. Accurate – accurate information is error free.

2. Complete – complete information contains all the important facts
3. Economical – information should also be relatively economical to produce.
4. Flexible – flexible information can be used for a variety of purposes.
5. Reliable – reliable information can be depended.
6. Relevant - relevant information is important to the decision maker.
7. Simple – information should also be simple, not overly complex
8. Timely- timely information is delivered when it is needed
9. Verifiable – this means that you can check it to make sure it is correct for avoid duplicates.
10. Accessible – information should be easily accessible by authorized users
11. Secure – information should be secure from access by unauthorized users.

Value of information:

The value of information is directly linked to how it helps decision makers achieve their
organization goals.
Data centered methodologies

This methodology focuses on defining the content of the data storage containers and how they are
organized.

- It means it specifies the memory unit

- And how the information are stored in its locations.
- Containers are one of the data storage area used for holding huge data.
Example:

IBM SERVER
ORACLE SERVER
CISCO SERVER
- Data centered methodologies utilize data models as the core of the system concept.

Model:

A model is also a description of the generic structure and meaning of a system.

A model is a representation in a certain medium of something in the same or another medium. So

the model captures the important aspects of the thing being modeled from a certain point of view and
simplifies or omits the rest.

A model is expressed in a medium that is convenient for working. Models of buildings may be
drawings on paper, 3D figures made of cardboard.

A construction model of a building shows the appearance of the building but can also be used to
make engineering and cost calculations.

Model mainly used for software developers to state requirements and domain knowledge and
understand it.

Object oriented methodologies:

This methodology attempts to balance the focus between processes and data.

So the unified modeling language ( UML ) is used to describe the system concept as a collection
of objects incorporating both data and processes.

Unified Modeling Language (UML)

The UML is a general-purpose visual modeling language that is used to specify, visualize,
construct and document of a software system.

It captures decisions and understanding about systems.

Notations

Initial state

Final state

Terminate ×
Junction

Choice

Simple

Orthogonal
s
Mainly UML is used to understand, design, browse, configure, maintain and control information about
such systems.

UML includes semantic concepts, notation, and guidelines. It is intended to support most existing object
oriented development processes.

Semantics – is a statement about system.

Notations – are symbols / indicating some relationship.

Waterfall development:

The analyst and users proceed sequentially from one phase to the next. Two advantages of
waterfall development-based methodologies are:

a) The system requirements are identified long before programming begins.

b) Changes to the requirements are minimized as the project proceeds.

The two key disadvantages of waterfall:

a) The design must be completely specified before programming begins.

b) It’s a long time delivery of the system.

Planning

Analysis

Design

Implementation

System
Waterfall development-based methodology
If you are a consultant for an online airline reservation system, do you think you need to do
feasibility analysis for that project? Support your answer with proper reasoning?

a) What are the feasibility analysis techniques you could apply?

b) What would be the concerned are for each technique? Support your answer with at least three
factors that should be considered?

Yes, feasibility analysis identifies the important risks associated with the project that might be
addressed.

a)

1)Technical feasibility
2)Economic feasibility
3)Organizational feasibility on university enrolment system.

b) Students should be able to explain the following information by providing examples about university
enrolment system for each case.

Technical feasibility is users and analysts familiarity with the business application area and their familiar
with technology by replying to these questions.

 Have we used it before?

 How new is it?

Project size depends on the number of people, time and features and they should consider the
compatibility with existing systems.

Economical feasibility is identifying costs(tangible and intangible) and benefits, assigning values to costs
and benefits. Determining cash flow and also assessing financial viability by:

 Net present value(NPV)

 Return on investment(ROI)
 Break Even Point(BEP)

Organizational feasibility which includes strategic alignment (how will do the project goals align with
business objectives) it is also involved with stakeholder analysis.

 Project champion
 Organizational management
 System users
2)

a) As an analyst, how do you evaluate each requirement gathering technique regarding to the
depth of information they are providing.

b) If you want to conduct an interview for this online airline reservation, what steps do you
take for the interview process and explain briefly each step for such a system.

a)

Interview : High

JAD : High

Questionnaire : Medium

Document analysis : Low

Observation : Low

b) - Selecting interview

Providing interview schedule, listing who will be scheduled, the purpose of the interview and

when it will take place.

- Designing interview questions

There are three types of questions closed-ended, open-ended and probing questions. There are

two fundamental approaches to organizing the interview questions.

 Top down
 Bottom up

- Preparing for the interview

General interview plan that list questions in order, anticipates possible answers and how to follow
up with them. Structured interview is better and prepares the interviewee as well.

- Conducting the interview

Build rapport with interviewee, explain why you are there, record all the information, understand
all the issue completely, separate fact from opinions, give time to interviewee.
- Post interview follow-up

Prepare interview report out of interview notes, send it to interviewee and receive his/her feedback,

never distribute someone’s information without their approval.

3) If a system analyst is going to develop a new information system for a financial organization.

a) which phases of system development does he/she need to go through?

b) what are the steps for conducting each phase?

c) Name at least two techniques for each phase?

a) For every system development the following phases are followed.

 Planning
 Analysis
 Design
 Implementation
b) Planning steps
* identifying opportunities
* analyse feasibility
* develop work plan
* staff project
* control and direct project
Analysis steps
* develop analysis strategy
* determine business requirements
* create use cases
* model process
* model data.
Design steps
* design physical system
* design architecture
* design interface
* design diagrams and databases , files

Planning techniques

* technical feasibility
* economical feasibility
* organizational feasibility
*time estimation
*risk management
 Analysis technique
BPA, BPR, Interview
Design technique
* design strategy
* architecture design
* hardware & software selection
* interface design
Implementation techniques
* programming
* software testing
* training
* system maintenance

4) Compare and contrast structured design methodologies and rapid application development with
graphical presentation.

Structured design methodologies, such as waterfall and parallel development move logically from one
phase to the next.

RAD( Rapid Application Development ) based methodologies attempt to speed up development and
make it easier for users to specify requirements by using prototypes (prototyping , throwaway
prototyping).

Phased development:

The phased development-based methodologies break the overall system into a series of versions that
are developed sequentially.

The analysis phase identifies the overall system concept, and the project team, users and system.

Project-1

Design
Planning Project-3
Design
Project-2
Implementation
Analysis

Design Implementation
Design
Phased development

Prototyping

The prototyping-based methodologies perform the analysis, design and implementation phases
concurrently and all three phases are performed repeatedly in a cycle until the system is completed.
 Planning

Implementation

Analysis System Prototype

Design
System
Implementation

Throwaway prototyping

Throwaway prototyping-based methodologies are similar to the prototyping based methodologies in

that they include the development of prototypes. They have a relatively through analysis phase that is
used to gather information and to develop ideas for the system concept.
Planning
Design

Analysis
Joint Application Design ( JAD ):

JAD key ideas

Allows project managers, users, and developing to work together. Avoid requirements being too
specific or too vague. May reduce scope by 50%.

JAD important roles

* facilitator – sets the meeting agenda and guides the discussion.

* scribe – assist the facilitator by recording notes, making copies etc.

* project team, users, and management.

JAD setting

*U-Shapped seating

* Away from destractions

*Whiteboard / flip chart

* Prototyping tools

*e-JAD

The JAD session

* Tend to last to 5 10 days over a three week period.

* Prepare questions as with interviews.

* Help with technical terms

* Record group input

* Help resolve issues.

* Keep session on track.

JAD meeting room

It consists

 White board
 Screen
 Projectors
 Printer
 Computers
 Name card for displaying their name
John
Example:
President
 Chart sheets / notice board

Managing problems in JAD sessions:

 Reducing dominations
 Encouraging non-contributors
 Side discussions
 Violent agreement
  True conflict
 Use humor(funny)

Questionnaire steps:

 Using samples of the population

 Careful question selection
 Working to get good response
 Send results to participants
 Selecting participants correctly

Good questionnaire design

 Don’t put important items at the very end of the questionnaire]

 Don’t crowd a page with too many items
 Avoid abbreviations
 Number questions to avoid confusion
 Begin with interesting questions

Document Analysis

Provides clues about existing “as-is” system.

 Typical documents – forms, reports

Look for user additions to forms.
Look for unused form elements.

Interview – five basic steps

1) Selecting interviewees
2) Designing interview questions
3) Preparing for the interview
4) Conducting the interview
5) Post-interview follow-up

Selecting interviewees

- Based on information needed

- Often good to get different perspectives ( managers, users)

Types of questions

a) Closed-ended questions
Example:
- how many telephone orders are received per day?
- how do customers place orders?
 - what additional information would you like to the new system to provide?
b) Open-ended questions
Example:
- what do you think about the current system?
- what are some of the problems you face on a daily basis?
- how do you decide what types of marketing campaign to run?
c) Probing questions
- why?
- can you give me an example?
- can you explain that in a bit more detail?

Interview preparation steps

 Prepare general interview plan ( list of question, confirm areas of knowledge)

 Set priorities in case of time shortage
 Prepare the interviewee
- schedule, inform of reason for interview
- inform of areas of discussion