LAB MANUAL

ENGINEERING MECHANICS
(PHYS-1224)

Name of Student: __________________________ Roll Number: _____________________

KHAWAJA FAREED
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, RAHIM YAR KHAN
Department of Civil engineering

Recommended Books:
 J. L. Mariam & L. G. Kraige; Engineering Mechanics Statics and Dynamics; John Wiley
& Sons, 7th Edition, 2007
 Hibbler, R. C. Engineering Mechanics- Statics and Dynamics, Prentice Hall (13 th
Edition), 2013.
 Ferdinand P. Beer and E. Russel Johnston Jr. “Vector Mechanics for Engineers”, 7 th
Edition, 2008 3.
 F. L. Singer, Engineering Mechanics, 4th ed, Harper and Row Publisher, 1987. 4.
 Pytel, A. & F. L. Singer, Strength of Material, Harper & Row Publishers, New
York.
 Hibbler, R. C., Mechanics of Materials, Prentice Hall, 6th Edition, 2004.
 Warnock, F. V., Benham, P. P., Mechanics of Solids and Strength of Materials,
Pitman Publishing, 1970.

(2/Total pages)
Department of Civil engineering

Preface

This Laboratory Manual is intended to provide undergraduate engineering students an

understanding of basic concepts of Engineering Mechanics and apparatus covering all
experiments related to the first-year level of the B.Sc. Civil Engineering.

In this text, related theory is discussed with the help of photographs of apparatus to quickly grasp
the basic concepts. Blank spaces are provided for observations and calculations. The manual also
contains brief procedure for the experiments performed, precautions and blank spaces for writing
results and finally comments on results.

Any comments / suggestions by teachers / students will be highly appreciated

(3/Total pages)
Department of Civil engineering

LAB REPORT REQUIREMENTS

General:

The following suggestions should be helpful.

1. Avoid personal pronouns.

2. If you quote from a text, identify the text.
3. View this report as though you were in industry and writing for your boss. Hence
sloppiness will not be accepted.

Safety:

1. Follow all safety instructions given in the class and in the laboratories.
2. Charpy machine can be lethal. Never leave the hammer in the up position until ready
to break a specimen.
3. Furnaces. Be careful in touching and handling specimens. Use tongs for placing
specimens in the furnace and removing them. Most specimens can be quenched in
water after removal from furnace.
4. Tensile Testing. During the tensile test pieces can fly out during fracture.
5. Use safety eye shield when grinding specimens.
6. Do not remove specimens from abrasive cut-off machine until the wheel has stopped.
7. No eating or drinking in the lab.

(4/Total pages)
Department of Civil engineering

LIST OF EXPERIMENT
Sr. No. Name of Experiment
1 Layout Plan of Engineering Mechanics Lab.
2 Study of Small Instruments and Lab Apparatus
3 Verification of Parallelogram Law and Triangle Law of forces
4 Verification of Conditions of Equilibrium of System of Force (Force Table)
5 Determination of forces in Tie and Jib of a Crane
6 To Find the Tension in Various Parts of a Hanging Rope loaded at
various points
7 To Observe Different Types of Supports
8 To Verify the Principle of Moments
9 To find out the support reactions and to Draw the Shear Force and bending
moment diagrams (SFD’s & BMD’s) for different Types of Beams
10 To Determine the Centre Of Mass of Various Figures
11 To Study the law of friction and coefficient of friction against different solid
bodies and on Horizontal Plane
12 To Study the law of friction and coefficient of friction against different solid
bodies and on Inclined Plane
13 Verification of the principle of superposition

(5/Total pages)
Experiment #1 (Layout of Mechanics Lab)

Experiment # 01
LAYOUT PLAN OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS LAB

(6/Total pages)
Experiment 2 (Study of Small Instruments)

Experiment # 02
STUDY OF SMALL LAB INSTRUMENTS
VERNIER CALIPER
The Vernier Caliper is a precision instrument that can be used to measure internal and external
distances extremely accurately. The example shown below is a manual caliper. Measurements are
interpreted from the scale by the user. This is more difficult than using a digital Vernier caliper which
has an LCD digital display on which the reading appears. The manual version has both an imperial
and metric scale. Manually operated Vernier calipers can still be bought and remain popular
because they are much cheaper than the digital version. Also, the digital version requires a small
battery whereas the manual version does not need any power source

How to Read Readings from the scale:

The external measurement (diameter) of a round section piece of steel is measured
using a Vernier caliper, metric scale.

Mathematical Method:
1. The main metric scale is read first and this shows that there are 13 whole divisions
before the 0 on the hundredths scale. Therefore, the first number is 13.
2. The’ hundredths of mm’ scale is then read. The best way to do this is to count the
number of divisions until you get to the division that lines up with the main metric
scale. This is 21 divisions on the hundredths scale.
3. The 13 and the 0.42 are added together to give the final measurement of 13.42mm
(the diameter of the piece of round section steel)

Commonsense Method:
Alternatively, it is just as easy to read the 13 on the main scale and 42 on the hundredths scale.
The correct measurement being 13.42mm

(7/Total pages)
Experiment 2 (Study of Small Instruments)

(8/Total pages)
Experiment 2 (Study of Small Instruments)

Micrometer Screw Gauge:

A quick guide on how to read a micrometer screw gauge. Similar to the way a Vernier caliper is
read, a micrometer reading contains two parts
1. The first part is contributed by the main scale on the sleeve
2. The second part is contributed by the rotating Vernier scale on the thimble

(9/Total pages)
Experiment 2 (Study of Small Instruments)

The above image shows a typical micrometer screw gauge and how to read it. Steps
are given below

(10/Total pages)
Experiment 2 (Study of Small Instruments)

1. To obtain the first part of the measurement: Look at the image above, you will see a
number 5 to the immediate left of the thimble. This means 5.0 mm. Notice that there
is an extra line below the datum line, this represents an additional 0.5 mm. So the first
part of the measurement is 5.0+0.5=5.55.0+0.5=5.5 mm.
2. To obtain the second part of the measurement: Look at the image above, the number
28 on the rotating Vernier scale coincides with the datum line on the sleeve. Hence,
0.28 mm is the second part of the measurement.
3. You just have to add the first part and second part of the measurement to obtain the
micrometer reading: 5.5+0.28=5.785.5+0.28=5.78 mm. To ensure that you understand
the steps above, here’s one more example

4. First part of the measurement: 2.5 mm

5. Second part of the measurement: 0.38 mm
6. Final measurement: 2.88 mm

Now, we shall try with zero error. If you are not familiar
On how to handle zero error for micrometer screw
Gauge, I suggest that you read up on Measurement
of Length.

The reading on the bottom is the measurement obtained and the reading at the top is the zero
error. Find the actual measurement. (Meaning: get rid of the zero error in the measurement or
take into account the zero error).

Measurement with zero error: 1.76 mm. Zero error:

+ 0.01 mm (positive because the zero marking on
the thimble is below the datum line). Measurement
without zero error: 1.76– (+0.01) =1.751.76– (+0.01)
=1.75 mm.

(11/Total pages)
Experiment #3 (Center of Mass)

Experiment # 03
TO FIND OUT THE REACTION AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
Objectives
The objective of this laboratory experiment is to find the relationship between the Load and
Reactions at the support.

Need and scope

To observe the practical understanding of how different loads acts on beam and how the
deflections occur moreover to calculate the difference between practical and theoretical values of
reactions and deflections.

Apparatus
1. Spring balance
2. Stands
3. Leveling deices
4. Weights and hangers.

Related theory
- Condition of equilibrium for vertical parallel forces acting on a body is
- Sum of all the force s should be zero.
- It should satisfy the principle of moments.
- If we take moment about a point on moments should be equal to anti clockwise moments.

Procedure
1. Set the apparatus accordingly
2. Then hang the beam on the hooks and weights on bam with hangers.
3. Note the distance of weight jaws from the support and value of weights.
4. Using the two condition of equilibrium calculates R1 & R2.f
5. For this one should know values of weight of beams, length of beams and weight of hanger

Observation and calculations:

Weight of hanger =
Weight of rod W3 =
Length b/w the supports =

W1 W2 L1 L1/L2 RA RB

Comments

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Experiment #3 (Center of Mass)

Experiment # 04
SYSTEM OF FORCES (FORCE TABLE)
Objective
To verify the conditions required for a system to be in equilibrium under the influence of coplanar
forces, and confirm Newton’s first law of motion.

Need and scope

The object of this lab is to gain a thorough understanding of vector addition. This is accomplished
by using the force tables to establish equilibrium for a particle, and correlate this equilibrium
condition with the math of vector addition.
Unlike scalar quantities that are added arithmetically, addition of vector quantities involves both
magnitude and direction. In this lab we will use a force table to determine the resultant of two or
more force vectors and learn to add vectors using graphical as well as analytical methods

Apparatus
Force table (table, ring, string and four 50g hangers), set of slotted weights, protractor and ruler.

Related theory
Equilibrium - Newton’s first law of motion states that an object in uniform motion will stay in
uniform motion, and an object at rest will remain at rest unless it is acted upon by an external net
force. In this experiment focus is kept on the object at rest. Mathematically, Newton’s first law is
expressed as a=0,
If, ∑= 0.
Newton’s first law is complimented by his second law of motion (this law will be examined in
detail in a later experiment), which is often simplified to the expression F=ma. Or net force ¡s
equal to mass times acceleration. Notice that force and acceleration are both vectors, but mass is a
scalar; t simply scales the magnitude of acceleration, hence the term scalar, Force and acceleration
always point in the same direction. Net force means the sum of all forces acting on the object.
Using these two laws, we can say that if the net force on an object is equal to zero, the object will
not experience acceleration. This is the condition required for equilibrium of concurrent forces.
So, if an object is set at rest in equilibrium condition, it will not accelerate, and thus it will remain
at rest and this is how it can be tested for equilibrium.

In this experiment, we are concerned with balancing coplanar forces. If the forces are balanced, the sum of
the vectors or the net force is zero, and equilibrium is reached.

(13/Total pages)
Experiment #3 (Center of Mass)

Procedure
You will be hanging masses on the force table via the pulleys to create forces on the center ring.
The edge of the table is marked with angle graduations to measure the direction of the force
vector. Because mass is a scalar, it needs to be multiplied by the acceleration of gravity, g=9.81
m/s2, to find the magnitude of the force it is exerting on the ring. Be sure to use SI units in your
calculations; mass has the units Kg, which multiplied by m/s 2 from acceleration gives Kgm/s2 = N
(Newton’s), the unit for force.
By balancing three and four forces around the table, you will find a configuration for equilibrium
of the forces. To verify equilibrium has been achieved, ensure the strings come of the ring radially
and run true over the pulleys, and then pull the ring to the side so that it is touching the center pin.
When you let go of the ring, it will readjust itself to be centered. Ideally, the ring should be
centered on the table to be in equilibrium, but for the purpose of this experiment, it is sufficient as
long as the ring is not touching or resting against the pin (the closer to center you can get the ring,
the better your results will be).

Part 1 - DFE
1. Place a hanger on the end of each of three strings. Leave the fourth string coiled on top of
the table.
2. Set each pulley at 0°, 120° and 240°, respectively, and add 50g to each hanger.
3. Verify that the strings come off the ring radially and run true over the pulleys.
4. At this point, the ring should be perfectly centered on the table. Add small masses to one
of the hangers to determine the smallest amount of mass that must be added to make the
ring touch the center pin.
5. Multiply the small added mass by the g to find the magnitude of the force required to take
the system out of equilibrium. This magnitude is your DFE.

Part 2, Three Forces

6. Remove all added mass from the hangers.
7. Move the pulleys to “crazy” angles (i.e. avoid multiples of 30° and 45°… the crazier the
angle, the more interesting your results). Note: you may leave one pulley at 0°, which will
save you some work later on.
8. Add mass to the hangers to move the ring so that it is as close to center as you can get it
9. Verify that equilibrium has been reached by pulling the ring to the pin and releasing it as
described at the beginning of the procedure section.
10. Multiply each total mass (hanger mass + added mass) by g to find the magnitude of force.
11. Label your force vectors A, B, and C (it doesn’t matter which one is which) and record the
directions and magnitudes in table 1

Part 3, Four Forces

12. Add the fourth pulley to the table and attach a hanger to the fourth string.
13. Repeat steps 6-11, recording the four vectors (labeled A, B, C, and D) in table 2.
14. Compare the resultant vector, R1, to vector C, compare the magnitudes and find the
difference in the angles (should ideally be 180°). Record this in table 3.
15. Resolve the three vectors in table 1 into their x and y components.
16. Add the components in table 1 to find the net force R2 and convert it into a magnitude and
angle.

(14/Total pages)
Experiment #3 (Center of Mass)
17. Use a vector polygon to find R3 by adding vectors A, B, C and D from part 3. This
diagram must also be to scale (denote the scale in the diagram) and be a full page in size.
18. Record the resultant, R3, in table 3.
19. Resolve the four vectors in table 2 into their x and y components.
20. Add the components in table 2 to find the net force R4 and convert it into a magnitude and
angle.

Observations and Results

Table 1- part 2
Force Magnitude Angle X component Y component
A
B
C
R2 (Net force)

Table 2 – part 3

Force Magnitude Angle X component Y component

A
B
C
D
R4 (Net force)

Table 3 – Results
Force Magnitude Angle Discrepancy Angle difference
(magnitude)
R1
R3

Comments

(15/Total pages)
Experiment #3 (Center of Mass)

Experiment # 04
TO DETERMINE THE CENTER OF MASS OF VARIOUS FIGURES,
CUT OUT THE WOODEN PLANK BY EXPERIMENT
Objectives
To understand, how the center of mass is determined experimentally for irregular geometrical
shapes
Comparison of experimentally and analytically determined centroid (center of mass)

Illustration of Centre of Mass

Need and scope
The center of gravity is an important concept in determining the stability of a structure. It's the
reason why a good homeowner will keep the top branches of his trees trimmed. It's also the reason
why a pick-up truck might not be the best vehicle choice for a first-time driver. Stability is
maximized in objects with a lower center of gravity and a wide base. The taller and top-heavier an
object, the more likely it is to tip over when it is tilted by a force.

Apparatus
Various irregular geometric shapes, graph paper, cutter, pencil, eraser, scotch tape, plumb bob,
thread, nail and measuring tape.

Figure 3.2: Different Shapes to Determine the Centroid

Related theory
The terms "center of mass" and "center of gravity" are used synonymously in a uniform gravity
field to represent the unique point in an object or system which can be used to describe the
system's response to external forces and torques. The concept of the center of mass is that of an
(16/Total pages)
Experiment #3 (Center of Mass)
average of the masses factored by their distances from a reference point. In one plane, that is like
the balancing of a seesaw about a pivot point with respect to the torques produced.

Procedure
1. A lamina is taken and small holes are drilled near its edges.
2. The outline of the lamina is traced on a graph sheet and its cutout using a cutter is pasted on it
3. The lamina is now suspended through one of the holes with the graph side up along with a
plumb line.
4. It is allowed to come to rest and then the thread of the plumb bob is trace on the graph paper
using a mirror.
5. This procedure is repeated to get at least 3 lines on the lamina which should coincide.
6. The point at which these 3 lines coincide is the center of gravity of the shape represented by
the lamina.
7. These steps are repeated for the remaining laminas of other shapes.
Observations and results
Table 3.3: Observations and Calculations for Center of Gravity of Different Shapes

EXP ANA Remarks

Shapes
X(mm) Y(mm) X(mm) Y(mm)

Precautions
1. The holes drilled in lamina must not be too large.
2. When suspended the lamina should be allowed to hang freely.
3. The parallax error must be avoided when tracing the plumb line using a mirror.
4. Pencil used should be sharp to determine the location of CG as accurately as possible.

Comments

(17/Total pages)
Experiment # 5(Tension in Hanging Rope)

Experiment # 05
TO FIND THE TENSIONS IN VARIOUS PARTS OF A HANGING ROPE
LOADED AT VARIOUS POINTS STEEL
Objectives
To find out the tension in a hanging rope loaded at various points and study the mechanism of
tension and how to calculate tension in rope and applying equilibrium conditions practically to
observe tension at different locations with various loads.

Apparatus
A hanging rope fitted with spring balances and weights
Related theory
In an ideal case, we assume strings and ropes to be massless and having same tension
throughout. The conditions of static equilibrium for forces are   and  . In this case,
this means  and  , where   and   are the angles
between the rope and the horizontal line joining the ends of the rope,   and   are the tensions
between the ends of the rope and the ball, and   is the weight of the ball.

Procedure
1. First note the zero readings of the spring balances in the various parts of the rope A, B, C, D
and E.
2. Then apply loads W1, W2 andW3 respectively at points B, C &D. Against a vertical board
draw the vertical through by mean of plumb line and find the Ө1 between this vertical and
AB.
3. Similarly find the angle Ө2 b/w the ED and vertical at E.
4. Now on a convenient scale, take a line FGHI to represent the total load W1, W2, W3
5. Such that FG represent W1, GH represent W2 and HI represent W3.
6. Draw IJ & FJ so that the angle IFJ=Ө1 & angle FIJ=Ө2 join GJ & HJ.
7. Satisfy yourself that FIJ is the triangle of forces for the whole rope ABCDE.
8. Also, that FGJ is the triangle of forces acting at H & GHJ is the triangle of forces acting at C.
9. Hence the tension in the parts AB, BC, CD, DE are given respectively by magnitude of FJ,
GJ, HJ, IJ.
10. Compare these with the spring balances readings and noted the results in the table.

(18/Total pages)
Experiment # 5(Tension in Hanging Rope)

Observations and results

Load Force in AB Force in BC Force in CD Force in DI Angle
S1 S2 S3 S4
W1 W2 W3 By By By By By By By By 01 02
Diag EXP Diag EXP Diag EXP Diag EXP

PRECAUTIONS
1. Note the zero reading of the spring balances.
2. see that the weights do not touch the ground
Comments

(19/Total pages)
Experiment # 6(Tie and Jib Crane)

Experiment # 06
DETERMINATION OF FORCES IN TIE AND JIB OF A SIMPLE “JIB-
CRANE”
Objectives
To determine forces in tie and jib of a simple JIB-CRANE by experimental, analytical and
graphical method.
Need and scope
To compare the force in tie and jib determined graphically and analytically. And to practically
verify the force in tie of a crane is a tensile force and in jib is a compressive force and also
observe the working of simple tie and jib under different loadings.

Apparatus
1. Tie and jib apparatus
2. Different weights and hangers
3. Spring balance
4. Steel tape

Related theory
Equilibrium
A balanced state of a body under the action of given forces, is known as equilibrium. In this state
the net effect of all the forces is nil.

Conditions of equilibrium:
On a body at equilibrium there is no resultant force and also there is no moment i.e. there is no
couple acting on it. Resultant is zero only if the algebraic sum of components along two mutually
perpendicular axes is zero.
Therefore, analytical conditions of equilibrium are:

1. ∑Fx = 0 Means algebraic sum of components of all the forces along any direction (say x-
axis) is zero.
2. ∑Fy = 0 Means algebraic sum of components of all the forces in a direction (say y-axis) at
90 to the first direction is zero.
3. ∑M = 0 Means algebraic sum of moments of all the forces about any point in their plane
is zero.
The first two conditions are applicable for concurrent forces and all the three conditions
must be applicable for non-concurrent forces.

(20/Total pages)
Experiment # 6(Tie and Jib Crane)

Procedure
1. Note the zero error of spring balance.
2. Apply weight at hanger and observe spring balance reading and geometrical observations i.e.
AB, BC and AC (constant).
3. Calculate the angles α, β and γ from the geometrical lengths using Cosine Law.
4. Repeat above steps by increasing weight in hanger
5. Determine forces in tie and jib analytically and graphically.
Analytical Method:
6. Analyze the concurrent forces at B using conditions of static equilibrium
7. (ΣFx = 0, ΣFy= 0)
8. From the figure 5.1, we have;
9. ΣFx = 0 → FT Sinα − FJSinγ = 0
10. ΣFy = 0 → FT Cosα + FJCosγ = W
11. Using these relations, we can work out the magnitude of the unknown forces.

Concurrent forces at B

Graphical Method:
1. Select a suitable scale for forces i.e. 1 cm → 1 N
2. Draw a vertical line whose length represents magnitude of force applied at hanger.
3. Knowing α and γ, draw two lines from vertical line such that they intersect at one point as
shown in figure 5.2.
4. The length of two lines gives the magnitude of forces in tie and jib.
5. The direction can be found using head to tail rule.

(21/Total pages)
 Experiment # 6(Tie and Jib Crane)

Observations and results

Load
Lengths (cm) Angles ( º) FT (N) FJ (N)
(W)

N AB AC BC α β γ EXP ANA GRAP ANA GRA

Comparison of results:
Table: Comparison of Analytical and Graphical

%age % difference =E −A× 100

Load %age difference (FT)
(N) difference (FJ) E
E –A E-G A–G A-G *This gives difference of “A” w.r.t. “E”.

Comments

(22/Total pages)
Experiment # 7(Supports and reactions)

Experiment # 07
TO OBSERVE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUPPORTS AND FIND THE REACTIONS
AND DRAW SHEAR FORCE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF BEAMS
Objectives
To Understand and practice practically how the different loadings are applied and their reactions
on beams and to draw the shear force and bending moment diagram of the different beams

Need and scope

Shear and bending moment diagrams are analytical tools used in conjunction with structural
analysis to help perform structural design by determining the value of shear force and bending
moment at a given point of a structural element such as a beam. These diagrams can be used to
easily determine the type, size, and material of a member in a structure so that a given set
of loads can be supported without structural failure. Another application of shear and moment
diagrams is that the deflection of a beam can be easily determined using either the moment area
method or the conjugate beam method.

Apparatus
1. Any Beam
2. Weights
3. Superposition Apparatus

Related theory
Bending moment and shearing force were two important factors to be considered while
designing any structural component. The experiment was carried out by setting up two edges
support on the base of two structural frames with an equal separation distance on both ends. The
load of different masses will be tested for these cases through measuring the reading of shearing
forces and bending moment, analyzing the difference between actual and experimental reading,
and this will enable us to identify whether the load is able to withstand at maximum masses
along the beam.
 Every structure will try to resist the deformation by developing the above internal
resistance (Shear, Moment and/or Bending Moment). However, the properties of the
body will decide how much resistance would be provided against loading.
For example,
 A beam of concrete material has very high resistance to shear. It is however very weak in
tension.
 A steel beam has high resistance in both shear as well as bending. However, it is very
expensive when compared to concrete.
 Hence, while designing a beam of concrete we find the points of maximum SFD and
BMD values. These values in turn give us the idea as to the kind of material and
geometry we need to provide to resist deformation (or failure in general). Since, concrete
is very cheap we try to provide as much of it as possible. However, it is weak in tension.

(23/Total pages)
Experiment # 7(Supports and reactions)

Procedure
Make the different types of beams on the Beam or superposition apparatus with different types of
loadings and find the reactions plus draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams

Observations and results

Shear force and bending moment diagrams sheet.

Comments

(24/Total pages)
Experiment # 8 (Principle of Moments)

Experiment # 08
TO VERIFY PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
Objectives
To investigate the fundamentals of the equilibrium of moments based on the examples of a two-
arm lever. Moments occurring on the lever are to be brought to equilibrium.
Need and scope
This experiment verified that the sum of the clockwise moments equals the sum of the
counterclockwise moments (F1D1=F2D2 ) , when the applied external forces acting on a
rigid object are in static equilibrium. The static equilibrium will then be used to show that
the weight of the meter stick acts at its geometric center. This will further verify that for a
uniform beam the geometric center and center of mass coincide

Apparatus
1. Equilibrium apparatus
2. Hanger
3. Weight hanger

Related theory
The force is not always perpendicular to the given lever arm. In this case, the correct
perpendicular distance must be determined. (The perpendicular distance is also the shortest
distance between the force and pivot point).
When dealing with moments, equilibrium exists when the total moment is zero.
Mathematically this is very simple – add the clockwise moments and subtract the counter
clockwise moments.

For equilibrium moments:

“Taking clockwise as positive, the sum of all moments about point A is zero”

Principle of moments Theorem

“The moments caused by the resultant forces (of some system of forces) about some arbitrary
points is equal to the sum of the moments due to all of the component forces of the system.”
.

(25/Total pages)
Experiment # 8 (Principle of Moments)

Procedure
1. Attach the hanger to the lever.
2. Now attach the weight hanger to the hook of hanger already attached to the lever.
3. Now some load W is added to the hanger.
4. Now note down the distance of each mass from the pivot
5. Now multiply the value of weight added with the distance to get the value of moments of
both clockwise and anticlockwise.

Observations and results

Sr.# F1 D1 M1 = F1 x d1 F2 D2 M2 = F2 x d2 F3 D3 M3= F3 x d3
(N (mm (N.mm) (N (mm (N.mm) (N (mm) (N.mm)
) ) ) ) )

Comments

(26/Total pages)
Experiment # 9(Law of Friction)

Experiment # 09
TO STUDY THE LAW OF FRICTION AND COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION AGAINST
DIFFERENT SOLID BODIES
Objectives
The object of this experiment is to determine the coefficient of friction between various materials
and inclined plane and horizontal plane

Need and scope

This experiment has two aims. The first aim of this experiment is to determine the coefficient of
friction on an inclined plane by using various materials tray. Secondly, to verify that the force
has already found which were required to move a body on an inclined plane. The aims of the
friction experiment are to find the coefficient of different combination of material which is in
this experiment, the steel bar. Making use of inclined plane, also to study equilibrium and non-
equilibrium of a body of an incline plane under the action of the force.

Apparatus
1. Sample block
2. Pulley
3. Protractor
4. Pointer
5. Weights
6. Hanger
7. Frame
8. Blocks of different material
9. Base
10. Mass of aluminum tray = 300 g
11. Mass of stainless-steel tray = 830 g
12. Mass of Nylon tray = 170 g
13. Mass of brass tray = 950 g
14. Mass of hanger = 50 g

Related theory
Friction can be defined as the force that will resists the relative motion of solid surfaces which
are sliding against each other. There are mainly three types of friction. Dry friction, Fluid friction
and internal friction but this particular experiment was just examined only for dry friction. Dry
friction is the encountered when two dry surfaces are in convention if there is a tendency of
sliding. However, this dry friction has split into two sub frictions as static and kinetic.
Commonly, kinetic frictional force will be less than the absolute maximum value from the static
frictional force. This static frictional force is derived as fs = μsN, while kinetic frictional force is
fk =μkN, where μs is the coefficient of static friction, μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, N is
the normal force and μ is the proportionality constant and called coefficient of friction.

(27/Total pages)
Experiment # 9(Law of Friction)

An inclined plane can be defined as any plane surface positioned at an angle with respect to the
horizontal plane. At the moment of sliding, the friction force must be the same to the element of
weight acting down the plane.

μW. cosθ =W. sinθ

This leads to the concept of the angle of the friction

μ = tanθ

(28/Total pages)
Experiment # 12(Law of friction on Inclined)

Experiment # 10
TO DETERMINE THE LAW OF FRICTION ON INCLINED PLANE

Objectives
The object of this experiment is to determine the coefficient of friction between various materials
and inclined plane and horizontal plane

Need and scope

This experiment has two aims. The first aim of this experiment is to determine the coefficient of
friction on an inclined plane by using various materials tray. Secondly, to verify that the force
has already found which were required to move a body on an inclined plane. The aims of the
friction experiment are to find the coefficient of different combination of material which is in
this experiment, the steel bar. Making use of inclined plane, also to study equilibrium and non-
equilibrium of a body of an incline plane under the action of the force.

Apparatus
1. Sample block
2. Pulley
3. Protractor
4. Pointer
5. Weights
6. Hanger
7. Frame
8. Blocks of different material
9. Base
10. Mass of aluminum tray = 300 g
11. Mass of stainless-steel tray = 830 g
12. Mass of Nylon tray = 170 g
13. Mass of brass tray = 950 g
14. Mass of hanger = 50 g

Related theory
Friction can be defined as the force that will resists the relative motion of solid surfaces which
are sliding against each other. There are mainly three types of friction. Dry friction, Fluid friction
and internal friction but this particular experiment was just examined only for dry friction. Dry
friction is the encountered when two dry surfaces are in convention if there is a tendency of
sliding. However, this dry friction has split into two sub frictions as static and kinetic.
Commonly, kinetic frictional force will be less than the absolute maximum value from the static
frictional force. This static frictional force is derived as fs = μsN, while kinetic frictional force is
fk =μkN, where μs is the coefficient of static friction, μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, N is
the normal force and μ is the proportionality constant and called coefficient of friction.

(29/Total pages)
Experiment # 12(Law of friction on Inclined)

An inclined plane can be defined as any plane surface positioned at an angle with respect to the
horizontal plane. At the moment of sliding, the friction force must be the same to the element of
weight acting down the plane.

μW. cosθ =W. sinθ

This leads to the concept of the angle of the friction

μ = tanθ

Procedure
1. The adjustable plane is to be positioned on a firm bench so that the load on hanger passes
the edge of the bench as it is descending.
2. Clamp the plane in the 0° position and use a spirit level to ensure the whole apparatus is
level.
3. Weight all the trays, load hanger and record.
4. Place the sample tray on the horizontal polypropylene channel at the end remote the pulley.
5. Attach the towing cord and arrange it over the pulley with the load hanger suspended.
6. Add load to the hanger until the tray will continue to slide at roughly constant velocity after
being given a slight push to start it moving.
7. Record this load in table.

Observations and Calculations

Mass of sample tray = ______________
Mass of hanger = ______________
Sr. Slid load (g) Normal force RN (g) Load on hanger Sliding force Coefficient
# (mass of hanger + F(g) of friction
slid load) (hanger + load µ = F/RN
on hanger)

The objective of this experiment is first finder the angle of friction of various materials on a steel
plane. The second object is to verify that the force required parallel to an inclined plane to move
a body up the plane corresponds to the friction coefficient (or angle) already found.

(30/Total pages)
Experiment # 12(Law of friction on Inclined)

Procedure
1. As explain above, the surfaces used in this week must be cleaned for the experiment and kept
free from dirt when not in us. The adjustable polypropylene plan is to be positioned on a firm
bench so that the load on the hanger passes the edge of the bench as it descends. Clamp the
plan in the 0° position and us a sprit level to set the plane truly. All the trays to use must be
weighed and their masses recorded as well as the hanger being used.
2. Clamp the plane at 10⁰ inclination. Place the sample trey at the mid and put the towing cord
and load hanger in position to pull the tray up the plan. Add load to the hanger until the tray,
given a slight push, slides slowly up the plan. Repeat the procedure with increased
inclination.
Observations
3. Mass of sample tray = _______________
4. Mass of hanger = _____________
5.
Angle of Mass of Towing Force Normal Sliding Friction Friction
inclination block + (hanger + Weight Force Force P- Coefficient Angle
Ɵ (degree) added mass on hanger) WCosƟ WSinƟ µ=P-WsinƟ Tan-1
W(g) P(g) _______
WCosƟ

The theory from which above table is developed is an extension of the previous experiment. In
this case the net force acting up the plan must be equal and opposite of the friction force. This
can be rearranged either in term of P or µ as the experiment is essentially about the coefficient of
friction that determine the choice.

P-WSinѲ=µWCosѲ
This can be rearranged either in terms of P or µas the experiment is essentially about the
coefficient of friction that determines the choice.

(31/Total pages)
Experiment # 12(Law of friction on Inclined)

Comments

(32/Total pages)
Experiment # 12(Law of friction on Inclined)

Experiment # 11
TO DETERMINE THE LAW OF FRICTION ON HORIZONTAL PLANE
Objectives
The object of this experiment is to determine the coefficient of friction between various materials
and inclined plane and horizontal plane

Need and scope

This experiment has two aims. The first aim of this experiment is to determine the coefficient of
friction on an inclined plane by using various materials tray. Secondly, to verify that the force
has already found which were required to move a body on an inclined plane. The aims of the
friction experiment are to find the coefficient of different combination of material which is in
this experiment, the steel bar. Making use of inclined plane, also to study equilibrium and non-
equilibrium of a body of an incline plane under the action of the force.

Apparatus
1. Sample block
2. Pulley
3. Protractor
4. Pointer
5. Weights
6. Hanger
7. Frame
8. Blocks of different material
9. Base
10. Mass of aluminum tray = 300 g
11. Mass of stainless-steel tray = 830 g
12. Mass of Nylon tray = 170 g
13. Mass of brass tray = 950 g
14. Mass of hanger = 50 g

Related theory
Friction can be defined as the force that will resists the relative motion of solid surfaces which
are sliding against each other. There are mainly three types of friction. Dry friction, Fluid friction
and internal friction but this particular experiment was just examined only for dry friction. Dry
friction is the encountered when two dry surfaces are in convention if there is a tendency of
sliding. However, this dry friction has split into two sub frictions as static and kinetic.
Commonly, kinetic frictional force will be less than the absolute maximum value from the static
frictional force. This static frictional force is derived as fs = μsN, while kinetic frictional force is
fk =μkN, where μs is the coefficient of static friction, μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, N is
the normal force and μ is the proportionality constant and called coefficient of friction.

(33/Total pages)
Experiment # 12(Law of friction on Inclined)

An inclined plane can be defined as any plane surface positioned at an angle with respect to the
horizontal plane. At the moment of sliding, the friction force must be the same to the element of
weight acting down the plane.

μW. cosθ =W. sinθ

This leads to the concept of the angle of the friction

μ = tanθ

Procedure
1. Weight the block M1 by means of a spring balance.
2. Place the plane in the horizontal position on a table in such a way that the pulley remains
outside the table.
3. Place the block on the plane.
4. Tie one end of the thread to the hook of block and other end to hanger in such a way that the
thread passes over the pulley.
5. Start placing slotted weights in the hanger till the block begins to move slowly towards the
pulley.
6. As soon as the block starts moving note the hanging weight M3.
7. Put some heavy weight M2 on the block and again repeat the above process. You will get the
second reading.
8. Similarly put some more weight on the block and take the third reading.
9. Weight of the block along with the weight placed on it gives the value of the normal reaction
R.
10. The hanging weight gives the limiting friction FS.
11. Remember that we have used the units of mass i.e. gram and the value taken is of mass. For
simple calculation convert this mass into weight by multiplying the mass to value of g i.e.
980 cm/sec2.
12. The limiting friction can be calculated by the given formula μ = FS/R.
Repeat the same experiment with different block surfaces

Observations & Calculations

No. of Weight of block Weight on block Wt. of block + Limiting

Obs. M1x g (Dynes) M2xg(Dynes) Wt. on block friction μ = FS/R
R = M1xg + M2xg (Hanging
(Dynes) weight)
FS = M3xg
(Dynes)

Mean μ = μ1+μ2+μ3/3

(34/Total pages)
Experiment # 12(Law of friction on Inclined)

Precautions
1: Check the zero error of the spring balance.
2: The pulley should be frictionless.
3: The surface of block and that of the plane should be smooth and dust free.
4: Note the hanging weight when the wooden block just starts sliding on the table.

Comment

(35/Total pages)
Experiment # 12(Law of friction on Inclined)

Experiment # 12
VERIFICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION ON BEAM

Objectives
The objective of this experiment is to practical understanding of how a principal of superposition
is justified by practical through the conditions of equilibrium.

Need and scope

The Principle of Superposition is a method used to solve complex problems with multiple loads
and/or reactions acting on the member. Superposition helps us solve these problems by breaking
the member down as many times as necessary for each force acting on it. Once all the stresses or
deflections for the point of interest are found, they can then be added all together to get a final
answer.

Apparatus
1. Simply-supported and Cantilever rectangular beams
2. Weights
3. Micrometer
4. Ruler
5. Dial Gauges

Related theory
The principle of superposition simply states that on a linear elastic structure, the combined effect
of several loads acting simultaneously is equal to the algebraic sum of the effects of each load
acting individually.
Distributed Load:
Uniform external forces that acts on the surface of a member over a specific length.
External Load:
Are the forces acting on the surface of a member. These can include support reactions, applied
forces, normal force etc.
Hooke's Law of Elasticity:
For relatively small deformations of an object, the displacement or size of the deformation is
directly proportional to the deforming force or load. [1]
Internal Load:
Are the forces that act on a member from the inside. It is the forces that hold the member
together when external forces are being applied.
Point Load:
Is a force acting on a single stationary point on a given structure.

(36/Total pages)
Experiment # 12(Law of friction on Inclined)

Part A - Simply Supported Beam

1. Record the beam dimensions and calculate the moment of inertia (I) using I=bh3/12 (2)
Calculate the maximum permissible loads for mid-span, where Maximum allowable
stress is …………. MPa
2. Check these calculated maximum loads with instructor before proceeding with the
experiment
3. Load the beam at the mid-span. Record the deflection at the point of loading at each
incremental load. Small divisions on the dial gage are ………. mm. One full revolution of the dial
is ………….m (…………. small divisions).
4. Load the beam at the mid-span in ……. kg. Increments. Record the deflection at the
points along the beam

Part B- Cantilever Beam:

1. Record the beam dimensions and calculate the area moment of inertia (I).
2. Calculate the maximum permissible loads for cantilever beam, where maximum
allowable stress is …………. MPa.
3. Load the beam at the free end in ……. kg. Increments. Record the deflection at the points
along the beam.

Part C - The Principle of Superposition:

1. Place a single concentrated load at end point and measure the resulting deflection (δ1) at
the reference point.
2. Remove the first load, and place a second load at same or another point on the beam and
measure the resulting deflection (δ2) at the reference point
3. Apply both loads simultaneously and measure the resulting deflection (δ3) at the
reference point. The sum of the single deflection (δ3) should closely approximate the
total deflection (δ1 + δ2).

Procedure
1. Set the beam as cantilever and measure its span length.
2. Attach two deflection gauges, one at free end and other at mid span.
3. Apply two loads, one at free end and other at mid span.
4. Note the values of load.
5. Note the deflection at both points.
6. Then remove one load and note the deflection produced by single load at both points.

(37/Total pages)
Experiment # 12(Law of friction on Inclined)

st
7. Replace the 1 load and remove the second load. Note the deflection produced by single
load at both points.
8. Compute deflections using theory.
9. Verify principal of superposition.
10. Repeat the above experiment with different loads and also with different end conditions.

Observations and results

LOAD
(kg) X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10

Comments

(38/Total pages)
 Experiment # 13
TO VERIFY TRIANGULAR AND PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES
 Objective
The objective is to experimentally verify the Triangular law of vector addition by using a force
table.

Need and Scope

The objective of this experiment is to show that the three non-parallel forces equilibrium can be
represented by a triangle of forces (provided that the direction of forces is known). The scope is
to practically verify and observe the law of forces and understand the basic concepts.

Equipment

1. A force table,
2. a set of weights
3. a protractor
4. a metric ruler
5. a scientific calculator
6. graphing paper

Related Theory
The “triangle law of force” states that if three coplanar forces acting on a particle can be
represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides of the triangle taken in order, the force
will be in equilibrium. This law can also be stated as: If two forces acting on a particle
represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of the triangle taken in order then their
resultant will be given by the third side of the triangle taken in opposite direction. “Parallelogram
law of forces” states that if a particle is acted by the two forces represented in magnitude and
direction by the two sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point then the resultant is completely
represented by the diagonal passing through the same point.
Procedure
1. Fix the paper sheet with drawing pin on the board set in a vertical plane such that it should
be parallel to the edge of board.
2. Pass one thread over the pulleys carrying a pan at its each end. Take a second thread and tie
its one end at the middle of the first thread and tie a pan at its other end.
3. Add weights in the pan in such a manner that the small knot comes approximately in the
center. Displace slightly the pans from their position of equilibrium and note if they come to
their original position of rest. This will ensure the free movement of the pulleys.
4. Mark lines of forces represented by thread without disturbing the equilibrium of the system
and write the magnitude of forces i.e. Pan Weight + Added Weight.
5. Remove the paper from the board and produce the line to meet at O.
6. Use Bow’s notation to name the force P, Q, R as AB, BC, and CA. H.
Select a suitable scale and draw the line ab parallel to force P and cut it equal to the magnitude of
P. From b draw the line bc parallel to force Q and cut it equal to the magnitude of Q (Fig. 1.2).
Calculate the magnitude of ca i.e., R1 which will be equal to the third force R which proves the
triangle law of forces. If R1 differs from original magnitude of R, the percentage error is found
as follows:
Percentage error = R−R1 R ∗ 100

Graphical Method
Graphical Method Fig. 1.2(b), draw ab parallel to force P in suitable scale with the use of set
square and then from b draw bc parallel to force Q. The closing side of triangle represents the
force R1 which should be equal to force R. Note, the difference in R1 and R shows the graphical
error

Analytical Method
Measure angles α, β and γ and by using Lami’s theorem check the following relation
𝑃 /𝑆𝑖𝑛 α = 𝑄 /𝑆𝑖𝑛 β = R2 /𝑆𝑖𝑛 γ
PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES
Graphical Method
In Fig., cut OA=P and OB=Q in suitable scale. From A draw AC’ parallel to OB and BC’
parallel to OA. R1 represents the resultant of force P and Q. As the system is in equilibrium it
must be equal to R. Note that R and R1 are in opposite direction.

Analytical Method
Measure angles θ1 and by using resultant formula, calculate R1 R2=√ (P 2+Q2+2 PQ cosine θ1)

Observation
Law Total Weight Total Weight Total Weight Calculate % Error
of Pan P of Pan Q of Pan R Resultant
Triangle Law
Parallelogram
Law

Comments
 Experiment # 14
VERIFICATION OF POLYGON LAW OF FORCES

OBJECTIVE
To verify polygon law of forces with the help of Gravesend’s apparatus

Apparatus Required
Gravesend’s apparatus,
1. Paper sheet
2. Weight
3. Thread
4. Pans
5. Set square
6. Pencil
7. Drawing pin.

Theory
8.
“Polygon law of force” states that if a number of coplanar concurrent forces acting on a particle
are represented in magnitude and direction by sides of a polygon taken in same order, then their
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in the
opposite direction.

Procedure
 A. Fix the paper sheet with drawing pin on the board set in a vertical plane such that it
should be parallel to the edge of board.
B. Pass a thread over two pulleys. Take a second thread and tie the middle of this thread to
the middle of first thread. Pass the ends of the second thread over the other set of two
pulleys.
C. Take a third thread and tie its one end to the point of first two threads.
D. Attach pans to the free ends of the threads as shown in Fig. 2.1.
E. Add weights in the pan in such a manner that the knot comes approximately in the center.
F. Mark lines of forces represented by thread without disturbing the system and write the
magnitude of forces i.e. Pan Weight + Added Weight.
G. Remove the paper from the board and produce the line to meet at O.
Select a suitable scale and draw the vector diagram (Fig. 2.2) by moving in one direction
(i.e. clockwise or counter clockwise). Draw ab parallel to AB and cut it equal to force P;
draw bc parallel to BC and cut it equal to Q; Draw cd parallel to CD and cut it equal to
force R; draw de parallel to DE and cut it equal to S. Vector ae will be the resultant force
T1 taken in opposite direction and should be equal to force T which proves the law of
polygon forces.
POLYGON LAW OF FORCES

Graphical Method

Fig. (b), draw ab parallel to force P in suitable scale with the use of set square and then from b
draw bc parallel to force Q. From c draw cd parallel to R and then draw de parallel to S. The
closing side of polygon represents the force T1 which should be equal to force T.

Note, the difference between T1 and T shows the graphical error.

Space Diagram Vector Diagram

Analytical Method

Draw a horizontal and vertical line at the point of concurrency of all the forces in Fig.2.2 (a) with
the help of set square. Resolve each force in x and y axis,
ΣFx=0; Px+Qx+Rx+Sx+Tx=0
Tx= -(Px+Qx+Rx+Sx)
ΣFy=0; Py+Qy+Ry+Sy+Ty=0
Ty= -(Py+Qy+Ry+Sy)
Note that T is resultant from the experiment, T1 is the resultant found from graphical method and
T2 is the resultant found from analytical method.

The difference between T2 and T shows the experimental error.

Force (Pan Weight + Added Weight)
Calculated

Law Resultant
P Q R S T

Polygon Law

Comments
End