ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SURVICE UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT STUDY

URBAN ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN (UE 575)

Course: Fundamental of Bridge design (UE575)

Prerequisite: UE 452 -Design of RC Structures II, & UE 342 - Theory of Structures II
Credit Hours: 3 (2 Lecture hours and 3 Tutorial hours) Targeted group: Year 5th
Academic Year: 2016/17/semester I Instructor name: Yonas A.

COURSE OUTLINE
1. Introduction

2. Investigation for Bridges

- Site Selection
- Data Collection, Span Determination

3. Types of Bridges and their Selection

- Types of Bridges
- Selection of Bridges

4. Bridge Loading
- Types of Loads
- Distribution of Loads According to AASHTO

5. Superstructure
- Reinforced Concrete Superstructures
- Steel Superstructures
- Composite Superstructures
- Arches, Cable stayed, Suspension
6. Substructures
- Piers
- Abutments
- Wing Walls
- Scour Protection
7. Bearings and Railings
8. Culverts and Low Level Water Crossings
References: 1. ERA Bridge Design Manual, 2002
2. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Manual
3. Bridge Engineering-Superstructure (Downloaded from Digital
Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill
(www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)
4. Bridge Engineering Handbook, Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan. (2000)
5. Structural Engineering Handbook, Gaylord, E.H (1997)
6. Bridge Engineering, Ponnuswamy, S( 1999)
7. Design of Modern Concrete Highway Bridges, Heins and Lawrie (1984)
Evaluation:

Attendance and Class Activity……………………10% (90% attendance for all student)

Project …………………………………………….....40% [Min./Max.5 &6 Group]
Mid Exam…………………………………………….20%
Final Exam………………………………………........30%

“Everything should be made as simple as possible.

But not simpler!”
(Albert Einstein)
1. Introduction
Bridges are important structures to pass obstacles, such as rivers, gorges, roads and railways.
They are not seen or understand in the same way by everyone. For instance: A simple bridge
over a small river will be viewed differently by different people because the eyes each one sees it
with are unique to that individual.

- Some one travelling over the bridge everyday while going to work may only realize a
bridge is there because the road way has posts and railing on either side.
- Others may remember a time before the bridge was built how far they had to travel to
visit friends and to get the children to school.
- Civic leaders see the bridge as a link between neighborhoods and a way to provide fire
and police protection and access to hospital.
- In business community, the bridge is seen as opening up new markets and expanding
commerce.
- An artist will consider the bridge and its setting as a possible subject for a future painting.
- A theologian may see the bridge as symbolic of making a connection between God and
human beings.
- While a boater on the river, looking up when passing underneath the bridge, will have a
completely different perspective.

Bridges affect people. People use them and engineers design them and later build and maintain
them. Bridges must be planned and engineered before they can be constructed. Bridge
engineering is one of the fascinating fields in civil engineering calling for expertise in many
areas: structural analysis and design, geotechniques, traffic projection, surveying, runoff
calculation and methods of construction.

Mankind takes lessons from nature to construct bridges

• Tree fallen accidentally across a stream was the earliest example of a beam type bridge.
• Similarly, the natural rock arch formed by erosion of the loose soil below was the earliest
forebear of arch bridges.
• Creeper hanging from tree to tree allowing monkeys to cross from one bank to the other
was the forerunners of suspension bridges.

Transportation System and Bridges

Transportation system which is implemented on land needs bridges. Basically in Road

Transportation System Bridge is mandatory for two reasons.

1. To pass obstacles

Fundamental of Bridge Design 1

 2. To facilitate the transportation system. This is to say in larges cities there is traffic jam
when two or more roads meet at a point. For such cases bridges, called interchanges are
provided. E.g. Gotera interchange, Addis Ababa

A bridge controls the capacity of the transportation system. For instance: If the strength of the
bridge is unable to carry heavy trucks, loads limits will be posted and heavy trucks will be
rerouted.

Bridges are expensive structures. The cost per meter of a bridge is high in comparison to the
road.

If the bridge fails, the transportation system will not be in a position to give function. Therefore,
bridge designer has control over the

• capacity,
• cost and
• Safety.

2. Investigation for Bridges

Bridge Site Selection

In locating a bridge crossing the following considerations come in to picture.

• The reach of the river should be straight. Especially this has to hold on upstream side of
the crossing. This is necessary so that the approach flow is not angular and the
obstructions caused by piers, etc have minimum disturbance effect on the flow.
• The river in the reach should have a regime flow free of excess of currents.
If this is present, it will be aggravated by the piers that have to be put up and will result in
excessive scour which endanger the foundation.
• The channel in the reach should be well defined.
• The crossing site should be as narrow as possible.
• The crossing site should have firm high banks which are fairly inerodable. In this case the
river flow will be defined and confined and any excessive velocity will not cause erosion.
• The site on a meandering river should be a nodal point. A nodal point is defined as the
location where the river regime does not normally shift and the location serves as a
fulcrum about which river channel swing laterally ( both upstream and down stream)
• The site should have suitable strata at reasonable and workable depth for founding piers
and abutments.
• The site should allow for constructing approach road.
• The site should be selected where skewness can be avoided.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 2

For a river crossing it is important to identify the type of river to be crossed. There are two types
of rivers namely alluvial and incised.

Alluvial rivers are winding and they erode their banks and scour their beds; they have flood
plains on either side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel banks to spread
across the flood plain. They are continually active, scouring and depositing materials on the
banks and transporting sediments.

Incised rivers have a relatively stable banks and arc generally narrower and deeper than alluvial
rivers.

Bridge crossing over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the
channel flow with in tile bridge waterway opening.

Data Collection

Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he/she needs to obtain field
information on the catchment area and run off, local terrain conditions and water levels,
navigational (like Baro River) and other clearance requirements.

Field reviews shall be made by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The most
complete survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for personal
inspection by someone experienced in bridge design.

• River Survey

Information required by the designer for analysis and design should include all features that can
affect the magnitude and the frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site under study.
These are: Climatologically characteristics, land runoff characteristics, stream gauging records,
high water marks and size and performance of existing structures in the vicinity.

High water marks can be obtained from gauges or from local people. In addition, they can be
identified from small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches, elephant grass or
similar matted down, mud lines on stones or bridges, are all high water indicators.

The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study are
needed for any predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these
characteristics can be found from office studies, some are better found by a field survey of the
basin. The size and configuration of the watershed, the geometry of the stream network, storage
volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the general geology and soils of the
basin can be found from maps.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 3

Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values, storage values,
and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values using different
methods . Like: Reve’s formula, rational formula, Area-Velocity formula

Soil Investigation

Once at the site it is easy and of great value to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc. in
cooperation with the soil investigators.

Soil investigation is required to get soil profile, engineering property of the foundation material
and foundation level of the abutments and piers for design of the foundation.

This information is obtained by analyzing samples taken from boreholes, test pits or
geophysical surveying.

Samples of at least 2Kg each should be collected marking station number and river name where
the crossing site is fixed.

Field Sketching and Photos

It has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with approximate water
shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc including very rough
dimensions with approximate measurements

As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream and downstream from the site as well as
along the contemplated highway centerline in both directions. Details of the streambed and banks
should also be photographed along with any existing structures in the vicinity both upstream and
downstream. Close-up photographs complete with a scale or grid shall be taken to facilitate
estimates of the stream bed gradation.

Check List of Site Investigation

A form or checklist that can be used by the field investigator/designer in identifying and
cataloging field information is shown on .A checklist for Inspection of existing bridges is shown
below.

FIELD VISIT INVESTIGATION FORM

• PROJECT:…………..................................................………………......……………… Date: …................……….

Inv. by ……….........................…………………………….........................… Site Situated @ STA: .................……….

• WATERWAY: Name: .............................................................................. Direction of flow: ....................................

Fundamental of Bridge Design 4

High Water Mark:... ...................... Level: +...............Side Slopes: ..................................degrees: ............

Diversions/ Flow concentration / Flood Hazards year, level: .............................................................................................

% Grade of Stream: ......... Channel, Base: ……(m) Height of Banks:…...... (m) Manning's Value n=..................

Crossing angle (estimated): …………degrees Meandering: ……………………………………(show figure below)

Bottom/Base material............................................................ Material on channel side: ......................... n=..........

Up or Downstream Restriction (debris/sedimentation/scour/soil mtrl.): ............................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................................................................

• STRUCTURES : Bridges/ Buildings upstream and downstream: ............................................. @ M up/down:.......

Type: ..........................................................................................Piers: Type: ............................................................

Abutment Types: ........................................Width: ...............(m) Size of Spans: ...................................................

Clear Height: ……(m) @............; ............m@..............; .............m@ .............; Total water width at HWL:............(m);

(Overflow? Year? Level: +...) .............................................................................................................................................

• MISC. Land Uses upstream and downstream: ..............................................................................................................

Vegetation (Location, Type, Name): ...................................................................................................................................

Wildlife (Paths, Traces, Type, Name): ...............................................................................................................................

• Soil Conditions: .......................................................................................................... at Roadway STA: .....................

Sample no: ............. @ STA: .............; Sample no: ............ @ STN: ................; Sample no: ............ @ STA: ................;

• Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ................... Photos no:..........@STA:............... Shows: .........................

Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ..................... Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: .........................

• REMARKS: ........................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................................................................

(please, make simple plan sketch incl. water shores/Road alignment and continue the text on back side of this page, if needed)

Economical Span

Span determination is usually dictated by the hydraulic requirement. However, there are
conditions where lengthen spans are chosen for the sake of road alignment.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 5

For a given span the most economical span is the length at which superstructure cost equals to
substructure cost.

Hydraulic Requirements

Bridges are designed to accommodate design discharge at design flood. When a river has a wide
flood plain, the economical solution may be using short span bridge with proper scour and
erosion protection for the embankment, abutments and piers.

Piers should be located in such a manner that they can provide the required lineal waterway and
navigational clearance.

The alignment of piers and abutments should, if possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow
during maximum flood.

Free Board

The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and the
floating debris carried on it.

The free board allows for uncertainty in determining DFL also. The minimum free board above
the design water level is given in table below unless refined hydraulic analyses have been made.

Table: Free Board

Discharge (m3/s) Vertical Clearance/Free board (m)

0 to 3.0 0.3

3.0 to 30.0 0.6

30.0 to 300 0.9

> 300 1.2

These clearance measurements should be increased for backwater effects when the flow is
restricted by short span bridge or when the river has history of unusual large floating items or in
case of navigational requirements.

Grade Requirements

Often in mountainous areas the road way grade is governed by the capacity of heaviest vehicle to

Fundamental of Bridge Design 6

climb, vertical curve and sight distance. These requirements may increase the span beyond the
hydraulic requirement.

3. Types of Bridges and their Selection

3.1 Types of Bridges

Bridges can be classified in different ways

(a) Traffic type/functionality

- Road bridge
- Railway bridge
- Pedestrian bridge
- Aqueduct
- Viaduct
- Equipment bridge

(b) Life Span

- Temporary bridges
- Permanent bridges
- Semi-permanent bridges

(c) Horizontal Arrangement

- Straight/Normal bridge
- Skewed bridge
- Curved bridge

(d) Vertical Arrangement

- Horizontal/ Flat/ Normal

- Inclined

(e) Span

- L ≤ 6m (Culvert)
- 7m < L ≤ 15m (Small span bridges)
- 16 ≤ L ≤ 50m (Medium span Bridges)
- 50 ≤ L≤ 150m (Large Span Bridges)
- L≥150m (Extra Large Span Bridges)

Fundamental of Bridge Design 7

 (f) Construction Materials

- Timber Bridges
- Masonry Bridges
- Reinforced Concrete Bridges
- Prestressed Concrete Bridges
- Steel Bridges
- Composite Bridges
(g) Span Arrangement

- Simply Supported
- Continuous
- Cantilever

(h) Structural Arrangement

- Slab Bridges
- Girder (Deck girder Bridges)
- Box Girder
- Portal Frame Bridges
- Arch Bridges
- Truss Bridges
- Plate Girder Bridges
- Cable Stayed Bridges
- Suspension Bridges
- Box Cell/ Box culvert

(i) Movements

- Movable Bridges
- Fixed Bridges

3.2 Selection of Bridge Type

In selection of a bridge type, there is no unique answer. For each span length range there is more
than one bridge type that will satisfy the design criteria. Generally the following factors should
be considered.

• Geometric Condition of the Site: The type of bridge selected will often depend on the
horizontal and vertical alignment of the highway route and on the clearances above and below
the road way. E.g. If the alignment is on a curve, box and slab type bridges are best options.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 8

• Subsurface Conditions of the Site: The foundation soils at a site will determine whether
abutments and piers can be founded on spread footings, driven piles and etc.

The potential for seismic activity at a site should be a part of the subsurface investigation
because this will change details of the substructure. E.g. an inclined leg rigid frame bridge
requires strong foundation

• Functional Requirements: Bridge should serve the present and future traffic.

E.g. If future widening or replacement of bridge decks is a concern girder type bridge is best
option.

• Aesthetics: It is necessary to understand what qualities and features of a bridge tend to make
that aesthetics statement a good one. This understanding requires training and time.

- When a bridge is placed across a relatively shallow valley, the most pleasing
appearance occurs when there are an odd number of spans with span lengths that
decrease going up the side of the valley.
- Harmony between the whole structure and its surrounding needed to be addressed.
- Repeating similar spans too many times can become monotonous, just as hearing the
same music with a heavy beat that is repeated over and over again can be
uncomfortable.

Moreover, contrast and texture, light and shadow are additional aesthetic parameter in bridge
design.

• Economics and ease of maintenance: In comparison of the economics of different bridge

types, the construction cost and maintenance cost should be taken together. A general rule is
that the bridge with minimum number of spans, fewest deck joints and widest spacing of
girders will be the most economical. By reducing the number of spans, the construction cost
of one pier is eliminated.

Deck joints are a high maintenance cost item, so minimizing their number will reduce the life
cycle cost of the bridge,

Generally, concrete structures require less maintenance than steel structures.

• Construction and erection considerations: The selection of the bridge type to be built is
often governed by construction and erection considerations. In general, the larger the
prefabricated or precast member, the shorter the construction time. However, the larger the
members, the more difficult they are to transport and lift into place.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 9

 The availability of skilled labor and specified materials will also influence the choice of a
particular bridge type.

• Legal Considerations: Applicable laws like environmental laws also govern the type of
bridge.

4. Bridge Loadings
4.1 Types of loads

The following permanent and transient loads and forces shall be considered for design of bridges
where applicable. The load provisions may also be applied to the structural evaluation of existing
bridges.

• Permanent Loads

DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments

DD = down drag
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting from the construction process
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill

• Transient Loads

BR = vehicular braking force

CE = vehicular centrifugal force
CR = creep
CT = vehicular collision force
EQ = earthquake
FR = friction
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load
SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage
TG = temperature gradient
TU = uniform temperature
WA = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load

Fundamental of Bridge Design 10

 WS = wind load on structure

4.2 Dead Loads

Dead load shall include the weight of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities
attached thereto, earth cover, wearing surface, future overlays, and planned widening.

In the absence of more precise information, the densities, specified in table below, shall be used
for dead loads.

Densities and Force Effects of Different Materials

MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect (kN/m3)
Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5
Cast Iron 7200 72
Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6
Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3
Concrete Normal 2400 24
Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18
Soft Clay 1700 17
Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
Steel 7850 79
Stone Masonry 2725 27.3
Wood Hard 960 9.6
Soft 800 8
Water Fresh 1000 10
4.3 Live Loads

Number of Design Lanes: Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined by
taking the integer part of the ratio w/3600, where w is the clear roadway width in mm between
curbs and/or barriers.

Multiple Presence of Live Load: The provisions of this subchapter shall not be applied to the
fatigue limit state for which one design truck is used, regardless of the number of design lanes.

Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple design lanes but this is
unlikely that all adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously. This will be considered by the
multiple presence factors.

Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple Presence Factors “m” 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65

Fundamental of Bridge Design 11

When the loading condition includes the pedestrian loads combined with one or more lanes of
the vehicular live load, the pedestrian loads shall be taken to be one loaded lane.

4.3.1 Vehicular Live Loads

Vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges structures, designated HL-93, and shall
consist of a combination of the:
• Design truck or design tandem, and
• Design lane load

• Design truck: The weights and spacing of axles and wheels for the design truck shall be as
specified in Figure below.

Plan of Design Truck Load

showing tire contact areas

4.3 m

4.3 –9.0 m

1.8 m
3.000 mm

Fig. Characteristics of the Design Truck

• Design Tandem: The design tandem used for Strategic Bridges shall consist of a pair of 110
kN axles spaced 1.2 m apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1.8 m. See
below.

110 kN

1.2 m

110 kN

1.8 m

Fig. Design Tandem Load

Fundamental of Bridge Design 12

• Design Lane Load: The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3 kN/m, uniformly
distributed in the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed
to be uniformly distributed over a 3.0-m width. The force effects from the design lane load
shall not be subject to a dynamic load allowance.

4.3.2 Dynamic Load Allowance

Ø (IM = Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance): Dynamic effects due to moving vehicles shall
be attributed to two sources:

1-Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding surface
discontinuities, such as deck joints, cracks, potholes, and delaminations, and
2-Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles, which shall be due to long
undulations in the roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement of fill, or to
resonant excitation as a result of similar frequencies of vibration between bridge and
vehicle. The frequency of vibration of any bridge should not exceed 3 Hz.

Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:

• Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions from the superstructure, and
• Foundation components that are entirely below ground level.

The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.

The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100).

Component IM
Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%
All Other Components
• Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
• All Other Limit States 33%
Table Dynamic Load Allowance, IM

The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures, in %, shall be taken as:

IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10 -4 DE) > 0%

Where:

DE = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm)

Fundamental of Bridge Design 13

 4.3.3 Centrifugal forces (CE= Vehicular Centrifugal Force):

Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles on curved bridges at speed. Centrifugal forces
shall be applied horizontally at a distance 1.8 m above the roadway surface.

Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem
and the factor C, taken as:

C = 4 v2

3 g*R

where: v = highway design speed (m/s)

g = gravitational acceleration: 9.81 (m/s2)
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)

4.3.4 Breaking Force (BR= Vehicular Braking Force):

From AASHTO Commentary 3.6.4 Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform
deceleration (retardation), the braking force determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is:

b = v2

2ga

Where a = the length of uniform deceleration.

From AASHTO Article 3.6.4 Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of the axle weights of the
design truck or tandem per lane placed in all design lanes headed in the same direction.

These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at a distance of 1800 mm above the roadway
surface in either longitudinal direction to cause extreme force effects.

4.3.5 Vehicular Collision (CT= Vehicular Collision Force):

Unless protections are provided a horizontal force of 1800KN applied at 1.2m above the ground
should be considered.

4.3.6 Pedestrian Loads

A pedestrian load of 3.6 kPa (kN/m2) shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and
considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live load.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 14

 4.3.7 Water Loads (WA= Water Load and Stream Pressure)
• Static Pressure: Static pressure of water shall be assumed to act perpendicular to the surface
that is retaining the water. Pressure shall be calculated as the product of height of water
above the point of consideration, the density of water, and "g" (the acceleration of gravity =
9.81 m/s2).

p = γ * g * z * 10-9

Where p = static pressure (Mpa)

γ = density of water (kg/m3)
z = height of water above the point of consideration (mm)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

4.3.8 Buoyancy: Buoyancy shall be considered an uplift force, taken as the sum of
the vertical components of static pressures, acting on all components below
design water level.

4.3.9 Stream Pressure

Longitudinal: The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product of longitudinal
stream pressure and the projected surface exposed thereto.

p = 5.14*10-4 CDV2

Where: p = pressure of flowing water (MPa)

CD = drag coefficient for piers as specified in Table below
V = design velocity in m/s of water for the design flood in strength and service limit
states and for the check flood in the extreme event limit state
Type CD
Semicircular-nosed pier 0.7
Square-ended pier 1.4
Debris lodged against the pier 1.4
Wedged-nosed pier with nose angle 90o or less 0.8

Table. Drag Coefficient

Fundamental of Bridge Design 15

 Lateral: The lateral, uniformly distributed pressure on substructure due to
water flowing at an angle, θ, to the longitudinal axis of the pier (see Figure below) shall be taken
as:

PL = 5.14 x 10 -4CLV2

Where: PL = lateral pressure (MPa)

CL = lateral drag coefficient specified in Table below.

Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure

Angle, θ, between direction of flow and C L

longitudinal axis of the pier
0o 0.0
1o 0.5
10o 0.7
20o 0.9
≥30o 1.0

Table. Lateral Drag Coefficient

The lateral drag force shall be taken as the product of the lateral stream pressure and the surface
exposed thereto.

4.3.10 Wind Loads (WL= Wind on Live load; WS= Wind load on Structure)
§ Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS): For small and medium sized concrete bridges below
50m length the wind load on structures shall be neglected.

In the absence of more precise data, design wind pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:

Fundamental of Bridge Design 16

 2
VDZ 
PD = PB  
VB 

Where PB = base wind pressure specified in Table below:

VDZ = design velocity of wind at design elevation, Z (Km/hr)

VB= Base wind velocity (Km/hr)

STRUCTURAL COMPONENT WINDWARD LOAD, kPa LEEWARD LOAD, kPa

Trusses, Columns, and Arches 2.4 1.2
Beams 2.4 Not applicable
Large Flat Surfaces 1.9 Not applicable

Table 3-12 Base Pressures, PB Corresponding to VB = 160 km/h (45 m/s)

The wind loading shall not be taken less than 4.4 kN/m2 in the plane of a windward chord and
2.2 kN/m2 in the plane of a leeward chord on truss and arch components, and not less than 4.4
kN/m2 on beam or girder components.

§ Wind Pressure on Vehicles, (WL): When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure
shall be applied to both structure and vehicles. Wind pressure on vehicles shall be
represented by an interruptible, moving force of 1.46 kN/m acting normal to, and 1.8 m
above, the roadway and shall be transmitted to the structure

§ Aeroelastic Instability: Many bridges, decks, or individual structural components have

been shown to be aeroelastically insensitive if their length-to-width or length-to-depth
ratios are under about 30.0. Wind tunnel testing of bridges and other civil engineering
structures is a highly developed technology, which shall be used to study the wind
response characteristics of a structural model or to verify the results of analysis. This is
especially applicable to long spans.

4.3.11 Earthquake Effects (EQ= Earthquake)

Earthquake loads are given by the product of the elastic seismic response coefficient Csm and
the equivalent weight of the superstructure. These are inertia forces due to mass of the bridge
when a sudden shaking of the ground occurs. Minimum seat width requirements shall be at least
500 mm at each abutment.

For multispan structures, the minimum analysis requirements shall be as specified below:

Fundamental of Bridge Design 17

Seismic Single-Span Multispan Bridges
Zone Bridges Other Bridges Essential Bridges Critical Bridges
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
1-3 No Seismic Analysis * * * * * *
4 Seismic Analysis SM/UL SM SM/UL MM MM MM

Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects

In which:

* = no seismic analysis required (Zone 1-3)

UL = uniform load elastic method
SM = single-mode elastic method
MM = multimode elastic method

The selection of the method of analysis depends on seismic zone, regularity, and importance of
the bridge.

Essential bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum, be open to emergency vehicles
and for security/defense purposes immediately after the design earthquake, i.e., a 475-year return
period event. However, some bridges must remain open to all traffic after the design earthquake
and be usable by emergency vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after a large
earthquake, e.g., a 2500 year return period event. These bridges should be regarded as critical
structures.

4.3.12 Earth Pressure (EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure; ES = Earth Surcharge;

LS = Live Load Surcharge; DD = Down drag)

Earth pressure shall be considered as a function of the:

• Type and density of earth, • Location of groundwater table,

• Water content, • Earth-structure interaction,
• Soil creep characteristics, • Amount of surcharge, and
• Degree of compaction • Earthquake effects.

Walls that can tolerate little or no movement should be designed for at-rest earth pressure. Walls
that can move away from the soil mass should be designed for pressures between active and at-
rest conditions, depending on the magnitude of the tolerable movements. Movement required to
reach the minimum active pressure or the maximum passive pressure is a function of the wall
height and the soil type. Some typical values of these mobilizing movements, relative to wall
height, are given in Table below:

Fundamental of Bridge Design 18

Approximate Values of Relative Movements Required to Reach Minimum Active or Maximum
Passive Earth Pressure Conditions

Values of ∆/H
Type of Backfill Active Passive
Dense sand 0.001 0.01
Medium-dense sand 0.002 0.02
Loose sand 0.004 0.04
Compacted silt 0.002 0.02
Compacted lean clay 0.010 0.05
Compacted fat clay 0.010 0.05

Where:

∆ = movement of top of wall required to reach minimum active or maximum passive pressure by
tilting or lateral translation (mm)

H = height of wall (mm)

For walls that are backfilled with cohesive materials, the effects of soil creep should be taken
into consideration in estimating the design earth pressures.

Where activity by mechanical compaction equipment is anticipated within a distance of one-half

the height of the wall, taken as the difference in elevation between the point where finished grade
intersects the back of the wall and the base of the wall, the effect of additional earth pressure that
shall be induced by compaction shall be taken into account.

Wherever possible, the development of hydrostatic water pressure on walls should be eliminated
through use of free-draining (rapid-draining) backfill material and/or the use of weep holes and
crushed rock, pipe drains, gravel drains, perforated drains, or geofabric drains that provide
drainage.

Where soils are subject to both saturation and seismic or other cyclic/instantaneous loads, special
consideration should be given to addressing the possibility of soil liquefaction.

• EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure

There are two earth pressure theories used. These are Rankin and Coulomb Earth Pressure
Theories.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 19

Coulomb theory is recommended by AASHTO for masonry and RC abutment since this theory
holds better for the actual situation.

Basic earth pressure (p, in MPa) shall be assumed to be linearly proportional to the depth of earth
and taken as:

p = k h*γs*g*z *10-9

Where: kh = coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as ko, from table below for walls that do
not deflect or move,

Soil type Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure, ko

OCR = 1 OCR = 2 OCR = 5 OCR = 10
Loose sand 0.45 0.65 1.10 1.60
Medium Sand 0.40 0.60 1.05 1.55
Dense Sand 0.35 0.55 1.00 1.50
Silt (ML) 0.50 0.70 1.10 1.60
Lean Clay (CL) 0.60 0.80 1.20 1.65
Highly Plastic Clay (CH) 0.65 0.80 1.10 1.40

Or k a, specified in Equations below, walls that deflect

ka = sin 2 (θ + ϕ/)

Γ* sin2θ sin (θ - δ)

In which:
2

Γ = 1 + sin (ϕ/ + δ) sin (ϕ/ - β)

sin (θ - δ) sin (θ + β)

Where: δ = friction angle between fill and wall

β = angle of fill to the horizontal
θ = angle of backfill of wall to the vertical
ϕ/ = effective angle of internal friction (°)

Fundamental of Bridge Design 20

 Notations

γs = density of soil (kg/m3)

z = depth below the surface of earth (mm)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

• ES = Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge

Where a uniform surcharge is present, a constant horizontal earth pressure, ∆p (MPa), shall be
added to the basic earth pressure. This constant earth pressure shall be taken as:

∆p = ks qs

Where: ks = coefficient of earth pressure due to surcharge

qs = uniform surcharge applied to the upper surface of the active earth wedge (MPa)

live load surcharge shall be applied where vehicular load is expected to act on the surface of the
backfill within a distance equal to the wall height behind the back face of the wall.

The increase in horizontal pressure due to live load surcharge shall be estimated as:

∆p = k*γs*g*heq *10-9

where: ∆p = constant horizontal earth pressure due to uniform surcharge (MPa)

γs = density of soil (kg /m3)
k = coefficient of earth pressure
heq = equivalent height of soil for the design truck (mm)

Equivalent heights of soil, heq, for highway loadings shall be taken from Table below. Linear
interpolation shall be used for intermediate wall heights.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 21

The “Wall Height” shall be taken as the distance between the surface of the backfill and the
bottom of the footing.

Wall Height (mm) heq (mm)

≤1500 1700
3000 1200
6000 760
≥9000 610

Equivalent Height of Soil, heq for Different Wall Heights Due to Vehicular Loading

N.B If the vehicular loading is transmitted through a structural slab, which is also supported by
means other than earth, an appropriate reduction in the surcharge loads shall be permitted.

• Down Drag (DD):

When soil surrounding piles settle, it applies a downward force. In this case, the force should be
considered.

4.3.13 Force Effects Due to Superimposed Deformations: TU, TG, SH, CR, SE

- Uniform temperature, (TU): Bridge materials expend and contract in response to

rise and fall of temperature. The difference between the lowest or the highest
temperature and the base construction temperature assumed in design shall be used to
calculate thermal deformation effects.

- Temperature Gradient, (TG): Temperature rise can differ on the top and bottom
surfaces of abridge because the top surface is subjected to direct solar radiation.

- Differential Shrinkage, (SH): Where appropriate, differential shrinkage strains

between concretes of different age and composition, and between concrete and steel
or wood, shall be determined. The designer may specify timing and sequence of
construction in order to minimize stresses due to differential shrinkage between
components.

- Creep, (CR): In determining force effects and deformations due to creep,

dependence on time and changes in compressive stresses shall be taken into account.

- Settlement, (SE): This will cause internal forces in continues structures. Force effects
due to extreme values of differential settlements among substructures and within
individual substructure units shall be considered.
Fundamental of Bridge Design 22
4.4 Design Philosophy

In engineering design the general principle is that the resistance of a cross section has to exceed
the effects come from the applied loads. That is

Resistance ≥Effect of Loads

When a particular loading condition reaches and just exceeds the resistance capacity of the
provided section failure is the result. Such a condition is referred to as a Limit State.

A limit state is a condition beyond which a bridge system or bridge component ceases to full fill
the function for which it is designed.

Preventing a limit state from being reached is the central goal of design of bridges. In addition to
this function, appearance and economy must get due attention.

Safety is achieved by using reasonable margin of safety factors. These factors are results of
collective experience and judgment of qualified group of engineers and officials.

In Highway Bridge design AASHTO LRFD provision is used for bridge design. The resistance
side of the inequality of Equation above is multiplied by a statistically based resistance factor,
whose value is usually less than one, and the load side is multiplied by a statistically based load
factor, whose value is usually greater than one.

The load effect at a particular limit state involves a combination of a different load types (Qi)
that have different degrees of predictability. Due to this reason the load effect side is written in a
summation form. The equation is

Φ ∗ Rn ≥ ∑ γi ∗ Qi

And this equation involves both load factors and resistance factor due to this the design method
is called load and resistance factor design method. In AASHTO LRFD bridge design
specification the equation is given by

η ∗ ∑ γi ∗ Qi ≤ Φ ∗ Rn

The additional parameter η is known as load modifier which is incorporated to consider ductility,
redundancy and operational importance of the bridge.

Under the umbrella of the LRFD the strength limit state, extreme event limit state, service limit
state and fatigue and fracture limit state exist.

Load Factors and Load Combinations:

Fundamental of Bridge Design 23

The total factored force effect shall be taken as:

Q = Σηiγi Qi

Where:

ηi= load modifier

Qi = force effects from loads specified herein
γi = load factors specified in Tables B and C below
Rn= is resistance

Components and connections of a bridge shall satisfy the above equation for the applicable
combinations of factored extreme force effects as specified at each of the limit states presented in
Table A:

Table A Limit States

STRENGTH Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the bridge without wind.
I A reduced value of 0.50, applicable to all strength load combinations, specified for
uniform temperature (TU), creep (CR), and shrinkage (SH), used when calculating force
effects other than displacements at the strength limit state, represents an expected
reduction of these force effects in conjunction with the inelastic response of the
structure. The calculation of displacements for these loads utilizes a factor greater than
1.0 to avoid undersized joints and bearings.

STRENGTH Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA-specified special design or
II permit vehicles, without wind.
The permit vehicle should not be assumed to be the only vehicle on the bridge unless so
assured by traffic control. Otherwise, the other lanes should be assumed to be occupied
by the vehicular live load as specified herein. For bridges longer than the permit
vehicle, the presence of the design lane load, preceding and following the permit load in
its lane, should be considered.

STRENGTH Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding 90 km/h.
III Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities. Therefore, high winds prevent the
presence of significant live load on the bridge.

STRENGTH Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load force effect ratios.
IV The standard calibration process for the strength limit state consists of trying out
various combinations of load and resistance factors on a number of bridges and their
components. Combinations that yield a safety index close to the target value of β = 3.5
are retained for potential application. From these are selected constant load factors γ
and corresponding resistance factors ϕ for each type of structural component reflecting
its use.
This calibration process had been carried out for a large number of bridges with spans
not exceeding 60 m. For the primary components of large bridges, the ratio of dead and

Fundamental of Bridge Design 24

 live load force effects is rather high, and could result in a set of resistance factors
different from those found acceptable for small- and medium-span bridges. It is
believed to be more practical to investigate one additional load case than to require the
use of two sets of resistance factors with the load factors provided in Strength Load
Combination I, depending on other permanent loads present. For bridges with up to
180 m spans, Load Combination IV will govern where the dead load to live load force
effect ratio exceeds 7.0.

STRENGTH Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with wind of 90 km/h
V (25 m/s) velocity

EXTREME Load combination including earthquake

EVENT I This limit state includes water loads, WA. The probability of a major flood and an
earthquake occurring at the same time is very small. Therefore, consideration of basing
water loads and scour depths on mean discharges shall be warranted. Live load
coincident with an earthquake is discussed elsewhere in this chapter.

SERVICE I Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with a 90 km/h
(25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Also related to deflection
control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and thermoplastic pipe and to
control crack width in reinforced concrete structures. This load combination should also
be used for the investigation of slope stability.
Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated using this load
combination. Service III is used to investigate tensile stresses in prestressed concrete
components.

SERVICE II Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip of slip
critical connections due to vehicular live load.
This load combination corresponds to the overload provision for steel structures, and it
is applicable only to steel structures. From the point of view of load level, this
combination is approximately halfway between that used for Service I and Strength I
Limit States.

SERVICE III Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete structures with the
objective of crack control.
The live load specified in these Specifications reflects, among other things, exclusion
weight limits. The statistical significance of the 0.80 factor on live load is that the event
is expected to occur about once a year for bridges with two traffic lanes, less often for
bridges with more than two traffic lanes, and about once a day for bridges with a single
traffic lane.

FATIGUE Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive gravitational vehicular live
load and dynamic responses under a single design truck having a constant axle spacing
of 9.0 m between 145 kN axles.
The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflects a load level found to be
representative of the truck population with respect to a large number of return cycles of
stresses and to their cumulative effects in steel elements, components, and connections.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 25

The load factors for various loads comprising a design load combination shall be taken as
specified in Table B. All relevant subsets of the load combinations shall be investigated. For
each load combination, every load that is indicated to be taken into account and that is germane
to the component being designed, including all significant effects due to distortion, shall be
multiplied by the appropriate load factor and multiple presence factor specified in, if applicable..
The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored force effect. For each load
combination, both positive and negative extremes shall be investigated.
In load combinations where one force effect decreases another effect, the minimum value shall
be applied to the load reducing the force effect. For permanent force effects, the load factor that
produces the more critical combination shall be selected from Table C.
Where the permanent load increases the stability or load-carrying capacity of a component or
bridge, the minimum value of the load factor for that permanent load shall also be investigated.
The larger of the two values provided for load factors of Uniform Temperature (TU), Creep
(CR), and Shrinkage (SH) shall be used for deformations and the smaller values for all other
effects.

Table B - Load Combinations and Load Factors

Load DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use one of
Combination DD IM CR these at a
DW CE SH time
EH BR
EV PL
ES LS
Limit State EL EQ CT
STRENGTH 1 γp 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γ SE - -
(Unless noted)
STRENGTH II γp 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γ SE - -
STRENGTH III γp - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γ SE - -
STRENGTH IV - -
EH, EV, ES, DW γp - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - -
DC ONLY 1.5
STRENGTH V γp 1.35 1.00 0.50 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γ SE - -
EXTREME γp γ EQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.0 -
EVENT I 0
SERVICE I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γ SE - -
SERVICE II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - -
SERVICE III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γ SE - -
FATIGUE
LL, IM and CE - 0.75 - - - - - - - - -
ONLY

Fundamental of Bridge Design 26

 Where (see following text):

BR = vehicular braking force FR = friction

CE = vehicular centrifugal force IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
CR = creep LL = vehicular live load
CT = vehicular collision force LS = live load surcharge
DC = dead load of structural components PL = pedestrian live load
DD = downdrag SE = settlement
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities SH = shrinkage
EH = horizontal earth pressure load TG = temperature gradient
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting TU = uniform temperature
from the construction process WA = water load and stream
EQ = earthquake load pressure
ES = earth surcharge load WL = wind on live load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
WS = wind load on structure

Table C - Load Factors for Permanent Loads, γp

Type of Load Load Factor (γp)
Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
• Active 1.50 0.90
• At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 1.0 1.0
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
• Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
• Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
• Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
• Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
• Flexible Buried Structures other than 1.95 0.90
Metal Box Culvert
• Flexible Metal Box Culverts 1.50 0.90
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75

For example, at Strength I Limit State where the permanent load reaction is positive and live
load can cause a negative reaction, the load combination would be:

0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM)

Fundamental of Bridge Design 27

If both reactions were negative, the load combination would be:

1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM).

Load Modifiers, ηi = η D ηR ηI :

ηD = a factor relating to ductility, as specified below

ηR = a factor relating to redundancy as specified below
ηI = a factor relating to operational importance as specified below

Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspects affecting the margin of
safety of bridges.

• Ductility: The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme
event limit states prior to failure.

For the strength limit state:

ηD ≥ 1.05 for non-ductile components and connections

ηD = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with these Specifications
ηD ≥ 0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-enhancing
measures have been specified beyond those required by these Specifications

For all other limit states:

ηD = 1.00

• Redundancy: Multiple load-path structures should be used unless there are compelling
reasons not to use them.

For the strength limit state:

ηR ≥1.05 for nonredundant members

=1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy
≤0.95 For exceptional levels of redundancy

For all other limit states:

ηR = 1.00

Fundamental of Bridge Design 28

• Operational importance: This definition shall apply to the strength and extreme event limit
states only. Some bridges or structural components and connections shall be declared to be of
operational importance.

Such classification should be based on social/survival and/or security/defense requirements.

For the strength limit state:

ηl ≥ 1.05 for important bridges

= 1.00 for typical bridges
≤ 0.95 For relatively less important bridges

For all other limit states:

ηl = 1.00

For Conventional Construction, Resistance Factors Ф shall be taken as

For flexure and tension of RC = 0.9

For flexure and tension of PSC = 1.0
For shear and torsion = 0.9
For bearing on concrete = 0.7
For compression in strut-and-tie model = 0.7
For compression in anchorage zones = 0.8
For tension in steel in anchorage zones = 1.0
For resistance during pile driving = 1.0

5. Superstructure Types

An efficient design of bridge superstructure is essential to achieve overall economy in the whole
bridge structure in that the superstructure dead weight may form a significant portion of the
gravity load the bridge must sustain and transmit to the foundation. A light superstructure is
economical not _only material requirements of the superstructure but also requires smaller size
for substructure and foundations. A clear understanding of the structural behavior of structural
behavior under loads is essential for efficient design.

A bridge superstructure is an integrated body of various members of reinforced concrete,

prestressed concrete, steel, composite, diaphragms, trusses, arches, etc. Determination of' forces
in theses components is essential for design purposes.

The following types of bridges are discussed as follows.

RC Bridge, Steel Bridge, Arch Bridge, Cable Stayed Bridge and Suspension Bridge

Fundamental of Bridge Design 29

Reinforced concrete bridges:

Steel and concrete are construction materials.

Reinforced concrete bridges possess several advantages over steel bridges.

- adaptability of concrete wide variety of structural shapes

- Low maintenance cost

- Long life and better resistance to temporary overloads and dynamic loads than steel
bridges.
- Cast-in-place Reinforced concrete structures are continuous and monolithic,
attributes, which translate into easy construction, low cost and good seismic
resistance. They can also be given the desired aesthetic appearance.

The disadvantage

- large dead weight

- difficulty to widen
- longer construction time
- requires formwork and false work

Bridge live loads occupy partial area of the decks unlike live loads in buildings which is taken
uniformly distributed all over the floor area. Live load on bridges can occupy random positions
both longitudinally and transversely, and this affects the live load shared by various beams. This
aspect of live load distribution is one of the primary concerns in the analysis of bridge decks.

Influence lines will be used to determine load position for maximum effect and the magnitude of
these effects.

The following RC bridges will be discussed.

Slab bridge
T-girder bridge
Box girder bridge
Continuous RC bridge
RC rigid frame bridges

Slab Bridge:

Slab Bridge may be in the form

Fundamental of Bridge Design 30

Uniform thickness

Voided slab

Slab Bridge normally requires more concrete and reinforced steel than Girder Bridge of the same
span but the formwork is simpler and less expressive, hence they are economical when these cast
factor balance favorably.

The structural configuration of bridge is shown below.

Post & raining

Curb

Notch
Slab
Edge beam

Typical Cross-section of Slab Bridge

Slab bridges are most commonly used to span short spans up to 12 meters. The load carrying
mechanism is by plate action, i.e., by bending and twisting due to continuity in all directions.
Application of a load on the portion make the slab deflect into a dish shape locally, causing a
two-dimensional system of bending and twisting moments, the mechanism through which the
load is transferred to the adjacent elements of the deck, which are less severely loaded.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 31

Where: Z is the downward deflection of the plate
q is intensity of uniform load
D is flexural rigidity of tile plate

In the absence of closed form solution to the above equation, approximate methods are
developed.

One method is the method of influence surfaces, which uses design charts. These charts have
been prepared by Pucher or slabs of various shapes and support conditions (1964), and by Rusch
and Heregnroder (1961) and Dalas and Hanuska (1964) for simply supported skew slabs.

Grillage method is also used for analysis and softwares are available for this. Another method
that AASHTO recommends is the Strip Method.

Load distributions:

The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with one lane,
i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:
E = 250 + 0.42 L1W1

The equivalent width, E of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with more than
one lane loaded shall be determined as:

W
E = 2100 + 0.12 L1W1 ≤
NL
Where: E = equivalent width (mm)
L1 = modified span length taken ≤ of the actual span or 18,000 (mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be ≤ of the actual width or
18,000 mm for multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading (mm)
W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
NL = number of design lanes as specified

Where decks span primarily in the direction of traffic, the effective width of a strip, with or
without an edge beam, shall be taken as the sum of the distance between the edge of the deck and
the inside face of the barrier, plus 300 mm, plus one-half of the strip width. The effective width
shall not exceed either the full strip width or 1800 mm.

T-girder Bridge:

T- Girders are used for bridges spanning from about 10meters-25 meters. These usually consist
of equal1y spaced beams (generally with spacing of 1.8-3.6m) spanning longitudinally between
Fundamental of Bridge Design 32
supports. The slab is structural1y continuous across the top. The slab serves dual purpose of
supporting the live load on the bridge and acting as the top flange of the longitudinal beams.
Diaphragms are provided transversely between the beams over the supports and depending on
the span, at midspan and other intermediate locations. The purpose of providing diaphragms is to
ensure lateral distribution of live loads to various adjacent stringers, the magnitude of the share
of each stringer depends on the stiffness of the diaphragms relative to the stringers and on the
method of connectivity.

Design of T- girder bridges consists of deck slab analysis and design, and the T-girder analysis
and design.

Structural analysis of the deck slab involves taking a continuous strip perpendicular to the girders
(AASHTO Art.9.6.1) and analyzing by moment distribution or using design aid given by
AASHTO, ILS for critical position of loads. Extreme positive moment at any point will be taken
to apply to all positive moment regions (Art 4.6.2.1.1). The width of equivalent interior
transverse strip over which the wheel loads can be considered distributed longitudinally in cast -
in - place concrete decks is given as [Table Art. 4.6.2. I .3-1]

• overhang, 11401-0.83lX
• positive moment, 660+0.55S
• negative moment, 1220+0.25S

Where X is the distance from the wheel load to centerline of support and S is the spacing of' the
T-beams.

In the design of overhang deck slab design forces acting on the post and railings or barrier should
be considered.

Load Distribution Factors for the Girders:

For moment:
- Interior girders: The live load flexural moment for interior beams with concrete decks
shall be determined by applying the lane fraction specified in Table below
Type of Beams Applicable Distribution Factors Range of
Cross-section Applicability
from Figure
13-2

Concrete Deck on l One Design Lane Loaded: S/3700 S ≤ 1800

Wood Beams Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
S/3000

Fundamental of Bridge Design 33

 Type of Beams Applicable Distribution Factors Range of
Cross-section Applicability
from Figure
13-2

Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and also One Design Lane Loaded: 1100≤ S≤4900
Grid, or Partially i, j if 110 ≤ ts ≤ 300
Filled Grid on Steel or sufficiently 0.06 + S 0.4 S 0.3 Kg 0.1 6000≤L≤73000
Concrete Beams; connected to 4300 L Lts3 Nb ≥ 4
Concrete T-Beams, act as a unit
T-and Double T- Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
Sections
0.6 0.2 0.1
0.075 + S S Kg
4300 L Lts3

Use lesser of the values obtained from Nb = 3

the equation above with Nb = 3 or the
lever rule
Multicell Concrete d One Design Lane Loaded: 2100≤S≤4000
Box Beam 18 000 ≤ L ≤
1.75 + S 300 0.35 1 0.45 73000
1100 L Nc Nc ≥ 3
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
0.3 0.25
If Nc>8 use
13 S 1 Nc=8
Nc 430 L

Steel Grids on Steel a One Design Lane Loaded: S ≤ 1800 mm

Beams S/2300 If tg < 100 mm
S/3050 If tg ≥ 100 mm
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
S/2400 If tg < 100 mm S ≤ 3200 mm
S/3050 If tg ≥ 100 mm
Table Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Moment in Interior Beam

- Exterior girders: The live load flexural moment for exterior beams shall be determined by
applying the lane fraction, g, specified in Table below
Applicable Cross- One Design Two or More
Type of Range of
section from Lane Design Lanes
Superstructure Applicability
Figure 13-2 Loaded Loaded
Wood Deck on Wood a, l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
or Steel Beam
Concrete Deck on L Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Wood Beams
Concrete Deck, filled a, e, k and Lever Rule g = e ginterior -300 ≤ de ≤ 1700
Grid, or Partially also i, j if
Filled Grid on Steel or sufficiently e = 0.77 + de
Concrete Beams: connected to act as 2800

Fundamental of Bridge Design 34

Concrete T-Beams. T a unit Use lesser of the Nb = 3
and Double T Sections values obtained
from the equation
above with Nb = 3
or the lever rule

Table. Distribution of Live Loads per Lane for Moment in Exterior Longitudinal Beams

For shear:
- Interior girders: The live load shear for interior beams shall be determined by applying the
lane fractions specified in Table
Type of Applicable One Design Two or More Range of
Superstructure Cross-section Lane Loaded Design Lanes Applicability
from Figure Loaded
13-2
Concrete Deck on l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Wood Beams
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and 1100 ≤ S ≤4900
Grid, or Partially also i, j if 0.36 + S 0.2 + S - S 2.0 6000 ≤ L ≤ 73000
Filled Grid on Steel or sufficiently 7600 3600 10700 110 ≤ ts ≤ 300
Concrete Beams: connected to 4x109 ≤ kg ≤ 3x1012
Concrete T-Beams. T act as a unit Nb ≥ 4
and Double T Sections Lever Rule Lever Rule Nb = 3
Multi-cell Concrete d 1800 ≤ S ≤ 4900
0.6 0.1
Box Beams, Box S d S 0.9 d 0.1
6000 ≤ L ≤ 73000
Sections 2900 L 2200 L 890 ≤ d ≤ 2800
Nc ≥ 3
Table -Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams

- Exterior girders: The live load shear for exterior beams shall be determined by applying the
lane fractions specified in Table
Type of Applicable One Two or More Range of
Superstructure Cross-section Design Design Lanes Applicability
from Figure 13-2 Lane Loaded
Loaded
Wood Deck on Wood a, l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
or steel Beams
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and Lever Rule g = e ginterior -300 ≤ de ≤ 1700
Grid, or Partially Filled also i, j if
Grid on Steel or sufficiently θ = 0.6 + de .
Concrete Beams; connected to act 3000
Concrete T-Beams, T- as a unit Lever Rule Nb = 3
and Double T-Beams
Multi-cell Concrete d Lever Rule g = e ginterior -600 ≤ de ≤ 1500
Box Beams, Box
Sections θ = 0.64 + de .
3800

Fundamental of Bridge Design 35

 Type of Applicable One Two or More Range of
Superstructure Cross-section Design Design Lanes Applicability
from Figure 13-2 Lane Loaded
Loaded
Steel Grid Deck on a Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Steel Beams
Table Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams

Where: S = spacing between girders (mm)

L = Length of Girder (mm)
t s = thickness of slab (mm)
The lever rule involves summing moments about one support to find the reaction at another
support by assuming that the supported component is hinged at interior supports.

When using the lever rule on a three-girder bridge, the notional model should be taken as shown
in Figure 13-1. Moments should be taken about the assumed, or notional, hinge in the deck over
the middle girder to find the reaction on the exterior girder.

Figure 13-1 Notional Model for Applying Lever Rule to Three-Girder Bridges

Multiple presence factors shall not be used with the approximate load assignment methods other
than statical moment or lever arm methods because these factors are already incorporated in the
distribution factors.

Box Girder Bridge:

Concrete box girder bridges are economical for spans of above 25 to 45m. They can be
reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete. Longer span than 45m will have to be prestressed.

They are similar to T-beams in configuration except the webs of T-beams are all interconnected
by a common flange resulting in a cellular superstructure. The top slab, webs and bottom slab are
built monolithically to act as a unit, which means that full shear transfer must be provided
between all parts of the section.

Reinforced concrete box girders have high torsional resistance due to their closed shape and are
particularly suitable for structures with significant curvature. This construction also lends itself
to aesthetic treatment.

Concrete box girder bridges have several advantages over other types;

Fundamental of Bridge Design 36

1. The relatively shallow depth of box girders is all advantage where headroom is limited like in
urban overpasses.

2. Monolithic construction of the superstructure and substructure offers structural as well as

aesthetic advantage. The pier caps for continuous box girders can be placed with in the box,
facilitating rigid connection to the pier.

3. They provide space for utilities such as water and gas lines, power, telephone and cable ducts,
storm drains and sewers, which can be placed in the hollow cellular section.

Typical cross section is shown in Fig. below. While the interior webs are all vertical the exterior
webs may be vertical, inclined or curved. When the exterior webs are inclined their slope should
preferably be IH: 2V.

Design Consideration:

The structural behavior of box girders is similar to T-beams. Box girders are essentially T-beams
with transverse bottom flange resulting in a closed, torsionally stiff multi-cell configuration.

The interior webs resist shear and often only a small portion of girder moments. Consequently
they are usually thinner than the webs of T-beams. This is so because, in the case of continuous
T-beams, the webs must resist the negative girder moments as well as all the shear, and contain
all the reinforcement for positive moments.

The bottom slab (soffit) contains reinforcement for the positive moment and also acts as a
compression flange in the negative moment regions of continuous spans. The bottom slab also
affords a superstructure considerably thinner than a T- beam bridge of the same span and permits
even longer spans to be built.

Cross-sections are taken as shown in Fig. below a and b for analysis for exterior and interior
girders respectively. The structural analysis is same as for T-beams. Section analysis is also same
except the compression bottom flange for continuous spans. The entire slab width is assumed
effective for compression.

a. Exterior girder b. Interior girder

Continuous RC bridge:

Advantages

Fundamental of Bridge Design 37

 - Less number of bearings than simply supported bridge since one line of bearings is
used over the piers
- Reduced width of pier, thus less flow obstruction and less amount of material
- Requires less number of expansion joints due to which both the initial cost and
maintenance cost become less. The rigidity quality over the bridge is thus ~proved.
- Lesser depth of girder, hence economical supports.
- Better architectura1 appearance
- Lesser vibration and deflection

Disadvantages

- Analysis is laborious and time consuming

- Not suitable on yielding foundations

RC rigid frame bridges:

In rigid frame bridges, the deck is rigidly connected to the bridge and piers. All the advantages of
a continuous span bridge are present here.

Additional advantages of rigid frame bridges over continuous ones are

- More rigidity of the structure
- Less moments in deck being partly transferred to the supporting members
- No bearings are required
- Better aesthetic appearance than the continuous span structure

As in continuous span bridges, these structures also require unyielding foundation materials. The
analysis is however, more laborious than the former.

Steel Bridge:

Steel bridge construction consists of rolled steel beams, plate girders or trusses with
reinforced concrete deck or steel plate deck-beam bridges.

- Steel has got several advantages.

- It is a high quality, homogeneous, isotropic material that is perfectly elastic to its

yield point.
- It has high tensile and compressive strengths.
- Past the yield point it offers considerable ductility to provide a large reserve of
strength.
- Steel bridges can be built faster than reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete
bridge.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 38

 - They can be erected with ease and this minimizing construction costs.
- Steel superstructures are usually lighter than concrete superstructures which translate
into reduced substructures costs, which can be significant when soil conditions are
poor.
- Steel superstructures can be designed with shallower depth than RC, which is an
important consideration when overhead clearance is required.
- Steel bridges are easy and faster to repair than RC.

Steel bridges have some major disadvantages that make then much less favorable than RC or
PSC bridges

- Corrosion of steel is the major drawback which requires prohibitively high

maintenance cost.
- Corrosion can reduce cross section of structural members and weaken the
superstructure also.

Some steel bridge types:

- Rolled steel beam bridge

- Plate girder and steel box girder bridges
- Steel truss bridges
- Plate Deck-Stringer Bridges

Arch Bridge:

Arches are generally characterized by the development of inclined rather than vertical reactions
under vertical loads.

Cross-sections are designed for thrust, moment and shear, with magnitudes depending on the
location of the pressure line as shown in Figure below.

Fundamental of Bridge Design 39

If the pressure line coincides with the axis of structure, (as in a uniformly loaded parabolic arch),
all cross sections will be subjected to compression, with no moment or shear. If the pressure line
falls with in the kern, there will not be tension. But if shape of structure and pressure line differs
moment may become dominant. Figure below shows parts of arch bridges.

Compared to the girder bridges, arch bridges are economical because the dead load moments in
arch bridges are almost absent when the arch is properly design.

The loads on the arch are carried by the arch ribs mainly through direct axial thrusts, the bending
moment and shear forces being small compared to Girder Bridge which requires larger section.
This is due to the hogging moment which balances the sagging moment created by the horizontal
force, H, at the support.

The main parameter of an arch is the rise to span ratio, r/l (1/6 to 1/10).

From economic point of view it is attempted to coincide the center of pressure of a given load
with center of line of the arch.

Cable Stayed Bridge:

Cable stayed bridges are ideal for spanning natural barriers of wide rivers, deep valleys and for
vehicular and pedestrian bridges crossing wide interstate highways because they can provide
long spans unobstructed by piers.

Span arrangement types:

- Two span (symmetrical or asymmetric)

- Three spans
- Multi Span

Fundamental of Bridge Design 40

The arrangement of the cable stays is one of the fundamental items in the design of cable-stayed
bridges. It influences, in fact not only the structural performance of the bridge but also the
method of erection and economies.

Longitudinal cable arrangement:

- Radiating (converging)

- Harp

- Fan /Modified fan/

Suspension Bridge:

The twin main cables from the tower of a suspension bridge form a catenary from which the
hangers are suspended and fixed to the deck.

Sag ratio for cables should be L/9-L/13

Suspension bridges are economical when the span exceeds 300m. Suspension bridges consist of
one main span and two side spans.

L1/L =0.17100.50

Fundamental of Bridge Design 41

The cables being very flexible do not take any bending moment and arc subjected only to tensile
forces. The stiffening truss stiffens the deck and distributes the live load of the deck on to the
cables. Otherwise the cables would be subjected to local sag due to action of concentrated live
load and thus causes local angle change in the deck system.

The stiffening trusses arc hinged at the towers and suspended at node points from suspenders,
which are usually high tensile cables.

Vertical suspenders have been used in many bridges but diagonal suspenders have the advantage
of increasing the aerodynamic stability

Simple Suspension Bridge

Suspension Bridge with Stiffening Truss

Suspension Bridge with Braced Chain

Fundamental of Bridge Design 42

Fundamental of Bridge Design 43
6. SUBSTRUCTURE
Piers
Piers provide vertical supports for spans at intermediate points and perform two main functions:

• transferring superstructure vertical loads to the foundations

• resisting horizontal forces acting on the bridge

Although piers are traditionally designed to resist vertical loads, it is becoming more and more
common to design piers to resist high lateral loads caused by seismic events.
Generally piers are subjected to:

• Dead loads
• Live loads and impact from the superstructure
• Wind loads on the structure and the live loads
• Centrifugal force from the superstructure
• Longitudinal force from live loads (vehicular braking force)
• Drag forces due to the friction at bearings
• Earth pressure
• Stream flow pressure
• Ice pressure
• Earthquake forces
• Thermal and shrinkage forces
• Ship impact forces
• Force due to prestressing of the superstructure
• Forces due to settlement of foundations

Pier Types

Solid Wall Pier: A solid wall pier (also known as a continuous wall pier) as its name would imply,
consists of a solid wall which extends up from a foundation consisting of a footing or piles. The top
of the wall is equipped with individual pedestals upon which the superstructure rests.
Their slender and streamlined proportions provide a minimal resistance to flood flows. Using solid
wall piers in stream or river crossings is advantageous since they are not as prone to accumulating
debris as multiple column piers.

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 43

 Figure: Solid wall pier
Hammerhead Pier: A hammerhead pier utilizes one or more columns with a pier cap in the shape
of a hammer. They are predominately found in urban settings because they are both attractive and
occupy a minimum of space, thereby providing room for underpass traffic.

Figure: Hammerhead pier

Column Bent Pier: A column bent pier, as its name would imply, consists of a cap beam and
supporting columns in a frame-type structure. In dense urban interchanges, use of column bent piers
can lead to a cluttered image producing a “concrete jungle” effect.

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 44

 Figure: column bent pier

Pile Bent Pier: The pile bent pier is a variation on the column bent pier with the supporting
columns and footing replaced with individual supporting piles. The end piles are generally equipped
with a batter in the transverse direction.

Figure: Pile bent pier

Finally selection of pier is made based on the following considerations.

• Aesthetics

• Economy

• Flow of water and traffic under the bridge

• Superstructure

Design Criteria: In general, the design of a highway bridge pier should address:
Safety against overturning
Safety against sliding
Safety against bearing failure of the soil

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 45

 Safety against excessive or differential settlement

Backwall and Wingwall

Figure: Backwall and Wingwall

Wingwall
A wingwall is a side wall to the abutment back wall or stem designed to assist in confining earth
behind the abutment backwall.

Backwall
A backwall, sometimes called the stem, is the primary component of the abutment acting as a
retaining structure at each approach.

Abutments
Abutment is component of a bridge
• provides the vertical support to the bridge superstructure at the bridge ends
• connects the bridge with the approach roadway
• retains the roadway base materials

From the view of the relation between the bridge abutment and roadway or water flow that the
bridge overpasses, bridge abutments can be divided into two categories: open-end abutment and
closed-end abutment.
For the open-end abutment, there are slopes between the bridge abutment face and the edge of the
roadway or river canal that the bridge overpasses. Those slopes provide a wide open area for the
traffic flows or water flows under the bridge. It imposes much less impact on the environment and
the traffic flows under the bridge than a closed-end abutment. Also, future widening of the roadway
or water flow canal under the bridge by adjusting the slope ratios is easier. However, the existence of
slopes usually requires longer bridge spans and some extra earthwork.

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 46

 Figure: open-end abutment

The closed-end abutment is usually constructed close to the edge of the roadways or water canals.
Because of the vertical clearance requirements high abutment walls must be constructed. The high
abutment walls and larger backfill volume often result in higher abutment construction costs and
more settlement of road approaches than for the open-end abutment.

Figure: Closed-end abutment

Generally, the open-end abutments are more economical, adaptable, and attractive than the closed-
end abutments. However, bridges with closed-end abutments have been widely constructed in urban
areas and for rail transportation systems because of the right-of-way restriction and the large scale of
the live load for trains, which usually results in shorter bridge spans.

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 47

Based on the connections between the abutment stem and the bridge superstructure, the abutments
also can be grouped in two categories: the monolithic abutment and the seat type abutment.
The monolithic abutment is monolithically constructed with the bridge superstructure. There is no
relative displacement allowed between the bridge superstructure and abutment.
The seat-type abutment is constructed separately from the bridge superstructure. The bridge
superstructure seats on the abutment stem through bearing.

Figure: a. Monolithic abutment b. Seat-type abutment

Abutments can be classified based on the load resisting mechanism as:

1. Gravity abutments: resist the load acting with its dead weight and dead weight of retained
soil or backfill on its inclined back face. They can be constructed using stone masonry or
concrete masonry.

2. Cantilever abutments: load resistance derived from cantilever action and usually constructed
from reinforced concrete.

3. Counterfort abutments: are similar to cantilever ones but ties called counterforts are
provided to tie the stem to the footing.

4. Reinforced earth abutments: The essential concept is the use of multiple-layer strips or fibers
to reinforce the fill material in the lateral direction so that the integrated fill material will act
as a gravity retaining structure. Overturning and sliding are needed to be checked under the
assumption that the reinforced soil body acts as a gravity retaining wall.

Figure: (4) (1) (2) (3)

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 48

Design of Backwall Abutments

Loads:
All loads acting on piers act on abutments except forces that result from buoyancy, stream flow and
collision of barge.

Impact will not also be considered for the design of abutments.

Earth pressure is the major force acting on abutments in addition to those forces mentioned.

In seismic areas, seismic forces should be considered for the back face of the wall due to inertia of
the retained soil mass.

Mononobe-Okabe method is used for seismic analysis.

In this analysis for free standing abutment

The horizontal inertia force

FH=Kh*Ws

The vertical inertia force

FV=Kv*Ws

Where Kh=αo and Kv is in between 0.3*Kh and 0.5*Kh

αo is bedrock acceleration, in Ethiopia case refer to EBCS 8,1995.

If the abutment is restrained from horizontal displacement, i.e. abutment supported on batter piles,
Kh=1.5 αo.

In case of seismic active pressure force, the load is applied at a larger distance from static active
pressure case i.e. at 0.6*H.

Design:
Length and shape of abutment wingwalls are usually dictated by terrain, height of bridge and level of
HWM.

Length of abutment backwall is governed by width of the superstructure.

Design of abutments is started by providing preliminary dimension then checked for different
design criteria.

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 49

Masonry abutments shall be checked for the followings.

• The location of the resultant on the base is determined by balancing moments about the toe
of the wall. Location of resultant X from the toe is:

B/3≤x≤2B/3 base on soil

B/4≤x≤3B/4 base on rock

• Check for sliding

Фs*Fru≥∑γi*Phi

Where:

Фs=performance factor [used to account for uncertainties in structural properties, soil properties,
variability in workmanship, and inaccuracies in the design equations to estimate the capacity.]

Fru=Nu*tanδb+Ca*Be

Nu=factored vertical resultant (force/length)

δb=friction angle between base and soils (degrees)

Ca= adhesion (force/length2)

Be=effective length of base in compression (length)

γi= load factor force component

Phi=horizontal earth pressure force causing sliding (force/length)

• Check for bearing

σmax ≤ σall

Scour
Scour is the washing away of streambed material by water channel flow. Typically, scour occurs
when the water channel becomes narrowed or constricted. From basic fluid dynamics, we know that
a smaller opening leads to a greater velocity (Q = Av). If constrictions in the channel are significant,
the velocity of the stream can increase such that the substructure footings and/or piles become
undermined. Sharp bends or curves in the water channel also increase velocity which can create
cross-currents and turbulence. Scour can either occur locally at specific substructure components
(local scour) or over the entire structure crossing the channel (general scour).
The removal of material from under a pier’s foundation, often associated with scour, is known as
undermining or undercutting.

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 50

Figure: An exposed pier footing shows evidence of undermining.

Scour generally takes place because one or a combination of the following conditions occurs:
Natural conditions in the channel
A constriction in the channel
The bridge itself being a constriction

When scour occurs at a specific localized point in the channel, such as a pier, abutment, drainage
structure, or some other obstruction, it is known as local scour. Local scour is evidenced by
turbulence around piers which erodes material from under the foundation. If scour takes place over
a large area of the channel it is known as general scour. General scour occurs over a long period of
time and is initiated by an alteration in channel flow patterns.
Scour which results from a reduction in the cross-sectional area of a channel due to the placement
of an obstruction such as a highway bridge or drainage structure is known as constriction scour.

The total potential scour at a highway crossing usually comprises the following components:

• Aggradation and degradation:

When natural or human activities cause streambed elevation changes over a long period of time,
aggradation or degradation occurs. Aggradation involves the deposition of material eroded from the
channel or watershed upstream of the bridge, whereas degradation involves the lowering or scouring
of the streambed due to a deficit in sediment supply from upstream.
• stream contraction scour:
Contraction scour usually occurs when the flow area of a stream at flood stage is reduced, either by a
natural contraction or contraction of a bridge. The decreased flow area causes an increase in average

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 51

velocity in the stream and bed shear stress through the contraction reach. This in turn triggers an
increase in erosive forces in the contraction. Hence, more bed material is removed from the
contracted reach than is transported into the reach.
• local scour:
When upstream flow is obstructed by obstruction such as piers, abutments, and embankments, flow
vortices are formed at their base as shown in Figure below (known as horseshoe vortex). This vortex
action removes bed material from around the base of the obstruction. A scour hole eventually
develops around the base.

Figure: Schematic representation of local scour at a cylindrical pier

• lateral stream migration:

Streams are dynamic. The lateral migration of the main channel within a floodplain may increase pier
scour, embankment or approach road erosion, or change the total scour depth by altering the flow
angle of attack at piers.

Since scour problem is dangerous to a bridge, proper consideration should be made in design of
substructure. If the scour depth exceeds the foundation depth there is possibility of bridge failure.
Therefore, to avoid bridge failures due to erosion, the depth of the pier should be more than the
scour depth. A general rate is to take depth of erosion as four times the height which the water level
raises at the obstruction section. So the foundation of the substructure should be located at least the
depth of erosion below the stream bed.

Scour Protection:
Scour protection is required when some restriction is made to the flow of the flood.
Riprap:
It is carpet of loose stones, which protects the loose bed material for bed protection and loose bank
or embankment material from erosion by water current. The stone elements must be heavy enough
not to be carried away by water.
Gabion and Reno mattresses:
The standard gabion is a rectangular basket made of steel wire mesh with sizes of 2m, 3m and 4m
long by 1m wide by 0.5m or 1m high. Reno mattress is a mattress - shaped version of the gabion for

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 52

use when the gabions height and bulk are not needed as in lining river beds and banks. Their
standard size is 6m length, divided in to 6 compartments of 1m width.
Filter Blankets:
If the river bed and bank material are non - cohesive and fine, they may be washed away through the
spaces between the voids in riprap or gabion lining. This can be prevented by using textile filter or
using gravel filter.
Vegetation:
Many plant types can be used to protect river banks against erosion. The most successful ones
are almost always those found growing naturally along the river being bridged.

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 53

 7. BEARINGS AND RAILINGS

BEARINGS
Bearings are structural devices positioned between the bridge superstructure and the
substructure.

Their principal functions are as follows:

1. To transmit loads from the superstructure to the substructure, and

2. To accommodate relative movements between the superstructure and the substructure.
Movements should be accommodated properly and these result from
a) longitudinal movement due to temperature changes-reversible
b) rotation due to deflection of girders- live load deflection is reversible
c) vertical movement due to settlement of support- irreversible
d) movement due to shrinkage, creep or prestressing-irreversible

Bearings are categorized in to two as

a) Fixed bearings – are fixed against translation, but free to rotate
b) Expansion bearings-are free to translate and rotate

Selection of the type depends on the type of superstructure, type of substructure supports
and the length of the span.

- A simply supported span requires fixed bearings at one and expansion joints at the
other.
- A continuous girder require fixed bearing at one and expansion bearing on all
other supports
- A two span girder will have fixed bearing at the centre support and expansion
bearings at the two abutments

Bearings are important components of bridges and call for care in design, skill in
execution, regular attention in maintenance. Faulty design or malfunctioning bearings due

Fundamentals of Bridges Design 54

to clogging by debris have often resulted in collapse of bridges due to the high stresses
induced due to restrained motion.
On certain major bridges bearing cost is as high as 10-15% of the total cost. It is worth
designing carefully and inspecting regularly for maintenance.
Types of Bearings
For slab bridges no special bearings are provided because the translational movement is
very small. Edges of supports are beveled to allow for rotation.
The following are the different types of bearings for girder bridges
- Sliding plate bearing- is the simplest type of bearing. This utilizes one plate
sliding on another. This type is used for bridges up to 30m span. Flat plates were
common but due to freezing and high frictional forces the surface of the upper
plate is slightly curved as shown in Figure below.

Figure: Sliding plate bearing

Fundamentals of Bridges Design 55

 - Roller bearing- in this type rotation is accommodated by the pin and translation
by the use of a roller or a group of rollers. See Figure below. This is used for
spans of moderate length.

Figure: Roller bearing

- Rocker bearing- this is used for longer spans and is used to accommodate large
live load deflections. See Figure below.

Figure: Rocker bearing

In seismic areas suitable guides should be provided to prevent the roller and
rocker components from being displaced off abutments and piers during
earthquakes.

- Elastomeric bearing- is made of a polymeric substance called elastomer (either

natural or synthetic rubber).

Fundamentals of Bridges Design 56

 This can be reinforced with steel plates, which are usually the case, or may be
unreinforced. This is very strong in compression and relatively week in shear,
thus allowing horizontal displacement. This has shown good weathering
performance and so incurs low maintenance cost. This type is favored for
bearings. This is used for medium to large spans. See Figure below.

Figure: Elastomeric bearing

- Lead Rubber bearing-is an elastomeric bearing equipped with lead core and is
used in highly seismic areas. See Figure below. Under normal loading conditions,
the lead core resists lateral loads. Under seismically induced dynamic loads,
however, the lead core yields and assists the elastomeric material in resisting
loads while at the same time accommodating lateral flexibility.

Fundamentals of Bridges Design 57

RAILINGS
Railings are provided along edges of bridges for protection of traffic and pedestrian.
There are three types of railings.
1. Traffic railings
2. Pedestrian railings
3. Combination railings

The following guideline indicate the application of various types of rails

- Traffic railings is used when a bridge is for the execution use of highway traffic
- A combination railing in conjunction with raised curb and side walk is used on
low-speed highways.
- On high speed highways the pedestrian path should have both an out board
pedestrian railing and an inboard combination railing

Aesthetics and freedom of view from passing vehicles should also be taken in to
consideration.

Traffic Railing
The primary purpose of traffic railings is to contain and redirect errant vehicles.
Specifically they serve the purposes of

- primarily containing the average vehicle

- protecting the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the railing
- protecting other vehicles near the collision
- protecting people and property on roadway and nearby areas underneath

A traffic railing should provide a smooth and continuous face on the traffic side.
Steel and concrete posts should set back from the face to the rail.

Fundamentals of Bridges Design 58

Pedestrian Railing
Pedestrian railing can be made from concrete, metal and timber.
A pedestrian walkway should be separated from roadway by a barrier curb, traffic railing
or combination railing.

Combination Railing
Consists of traffic and pedestrian railings

Fundamentals of Bridges Design 59

8. CULVERTS AND LOW LEVEL WATER CROSSINGS

CULVERTS

Culverts are cross drainage structures used to drain rain run off collected by side ditches
from one side of the highway to the other. In any highway or railway project, the majority
of cross drainage works fall under this category.

Where the waterway opening is less than about 15m2, and particularly where the road
crosses the waterway on a relatively high embankment, a culvert will usually be
cheaper than a bridge.

In addition to providing culverts at the lowest point, it is good practice to install, culverts
for cross drainage at regular intervals down a long grade.

As a general rule, there should be at least one culvert every 300m, unless the road follows
a ridge. Therefore, cost of culverts account for a significant proportion of the project cost.

Culverts are usually constructed from:

- Precast concrete jointed pipes
- Single or multi-cell reinforced concrete boxes, prefabricated or built in situ
- corrugated steel pipes made of prefabricated panels

Single precast concrete pipe culverts are commonly used for small openings up to 2m2,
while multiple concrete pipes with common headwalls cater for larger areas.
Alternatively, reinforced concrete box culverts are used with internal box size up to 4m x
3.5m. Twin or multiple boxes may be required for larger waterway openings. In difficult
ground conditions a flexible steel pipe has an advantage over a rigid concrete culvert
through its ability to accommodate a certain amount of differential settlement over the
length of the culvert without overstressing the material. A culvert made of rigid concrete
sections will not be tolerant to differential settlement unless it is specifically designed for
such conditions either by increasing its structural strength or by segmenting the culvert
along its length to allow it to flex. In theory such a solution may appear to be satisfactory,
but the provision of watertight joints to permit flexing to occur can be costly and the
satisfactory performance of the joints cannot always be guaranteed. Leakage from
culverts, particularly those carrying embankments, can have serious consequences, since
weakening of the embankment material may lead to an embankment failure. If properly
constructed a reinforced concrete culvert is likely to have a service life in excess of 60
years and will almost certainly be more durable and require less maintenance than a steel
pipe. By comparison, a corrugated steel pipe culvert, well protected against corrosion by
plating and bitumen coating, can be expected to have a working life in the order of 30 to
40 years in a non-aggressive environment. It is usual to design culverts to last the life of
the highway. Despite the best efforts of the engineer, it must be expected that some
culverts will become silted or obstructed by debris. For this reason pipes of internal
diameter less than 0.6m are not recommended since they are difficult to clean.

Like bridges, culverts are designed to be large enough to pass the design flood without
Fundamentals of Bridge Design 60
damage to the embankment or surrounding land.

Highway drainage ditches collect general run-off water which is cross drained using
culverts. This concentration of flow is almost certain to cause erosion damage to many
types of soil. Before or at the entrance to culverts it is important to control the flow
velocity, particularly since an abrupt change in direction of flow may occur at these
points making erosion damage more likely. Control may be achieved by reducing the
gradient, installing check-drains or by building a drop inlet. It is also important to control
the velocity of flow at the outlet, because erosion damage to the road embankment or
surrounding farmland occurs more frequently at the discharge end. For this reason, where
gradients arc steep, the arrangements shown in Figure below are preferred. A curtain wall
is often necessary at the outlet of a culvert carrying more than a minimal flow, in order to
prevent scour undermining the structure. A concrete or rip rap apron may be required to
dissipate the energy of the discharge, or it may be necessary to contain the flow in a
paved channel until the natural gradient becomes small enough not to induce fast flows
with consequential deepening of the channel.

Figure: Check dams

The proper location of each culvert is important because it affects the drainage pattern
and hence the strength of the surrounding soils, the area of waterway, ditch and culvert
maintenance, and erosion damage.
There are four rules concerning location and alignment of culverts
- Where a road crosses a valley, the lowest point requires a vent, whether there is
an established stream or not.
- Where there is an established stream, the culvert should follow the existing
alignment, unless the alignment can be improved.
- The gradient of the culvert should be the same as the gradient of the stream.
- Measures may be necessary to ensure that the watercourse does not move. This
could cause severe damage and the consequent change of location of the culvert
would be expensive.
The gradient of the culvert is important because it affects future maintenance. If it is too
steep, it will encourage erosion at the outlet. If it is less steep than the stream, there is
likely to be a sediment problem. A gradient of 2 to 4 per cent is advisable where silts are
carried in the flow; a minimum of 0.5 per cent is recommended for clear water. It is also
important to set the culvert invert at the same level as the natural stream bed. Culverts are
frequently set low to avoid humps in the road above. Where the road embankment is not
high enough to provide adequate clearance above the pipe, the ditch has to be lowered on
both sides of the road or the embankment raised. This may necessitate widening the side

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 61

slopes and demonstrates the importance of detailing drainage structures early in the
design of a road. Where an established stream is met at an angle to the road alignment, it
is usually better to follow the line of the stream with a skewed culvert, even though the
construction cost will be increased by the greater length. An abrupt change in the
direction of flow at the inlet and outlet of a square crossing may be accommodated
without problem for most of the year, but when heavy rains cause maximum flow the
change of direction can result in severe erosion or wash-out. It may also be necessary to
stabilize a shifting channel or even move it to improve the geometry where stream and
road interact. The principal objectives here are:

- to avoid a bend at either end of the culvert if possible

- if a bend is unavoidable, to place it at the outlet

Any change of stream channel must be constructed so that there is no possibility of the
stream regaining its original course.

HEADWALLS

Headwalls retain and protect the embankment at the ends of a culvert and help to
counteract the dislocation of jointed pipes due to the spreading forces at the base of large
embankments. They also divert debris from falling into the waterway, reduce seepage of
water into the embankment and prevent small animals from burrowing alongside the
pipe. Where conditions favor erosion, headwalls should incorporate deep curtain walls
and side slope protection in the form of gabions or hand-pitched stone.
Since large headwalls are expensive to build, it is advisable initially to make the culvert
pipe long enough to reach the toe of the embankment. Headwalls are usually made of
masonry or concrete.

CONCRETE RIPE CULVERTS

On most road constructions, sections of concrete pipe are butted together and connected
by mortar, and the embankment material is compacted around them. This is cheap and
often serves for several years. A far better quality culvert is obtained by surrounding the
pipe with concrete. If the sub grade is likely to settle under the weight of the
embankment, the concrete surround should be reinforced to take tensile stresses. All soft
clay material and rock should be excavated from below the pipe to a depth of at least
200mm and replaced with good granular material, well compacted.

FLEXIBLE STEEL CULVERTS

These are made from pre-formed corrugated sections bolted together to form a circular or
elliptical tube. They can accept a certain amount of longitudinal or radial deformation
without sustaining damage and so are better suited to unstable conditions than rigid
concrete structures. They are also easier to transport and faster to construct than the
equivalent size of pre-cast pipe culvert, but require specialist manufacture.
All soft unstable material should be excavated and back filled to foundation level with

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 62

gravel mixture, crushed stone or other suitable material. In the case of rock foundations,
the rock should be excavated to at least 250mm below the foundation level and wide
enough to prevent the pipe resting directly on rock at any point. It should then be back
filled to provide a cushion for the pipe.
Back filling will be made in layers of approximately 200mm, loading each side and
layer evenly and fully compacted before placing the next. The inside shape may need
to be protected by strutting as the fill is built up on each side and eventually above the
pipe.
All the fill material should be of good quality, extending to a distance roughly equal to
the pipe diameter each side and above, or up to the road base if this distance is less.
The degree of protection against corrosion required to extend the working life of a
corrugated steel pipe structure is determined on the basis of:
- The importance of the structure and its required working life
- The corrosive nature of the environment in which it exists.
Durability studies indicate that metal loss associated with corrosion usually originates on
the interior surface of the structure and progresses towards the exterior or buried face.
The conclusion is that protective treatment to the exposed surfaces should generally be
superior to that applied to the buried surfaces. All corrugated steel structures should be
hot-dipped galvanized and hot coated with bitumen on the inside. Bituminous paving to
the invert of the pipe will also help extend the life of the structure.

REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX CULVERTS

Reinforced concrete box culverts may be constructed either as a monolithic box or as a U
section with a simply supported top slab propping the sidewalls. Twin or multiple cell
box culverts are used where the horizontal opening is more than about 4m. These too
may be constructed with monolithic top slab and walls or with a separately cast lid.
Culverts with separately constructed top slabs are simpler to construct because they
require less complicated steel reinforcement and, though containing more material, they
generally offer a more economical form of construction. Owing to reversal of bending
moment in the walls and bottom slab, reinforcement to both faces of these elements is
required but the top slab of a single cell culvert requires only bottom reinforcement.
For a twin box culvert with a separately cast top slab, the outer walls are again
propped apart and the centre wall may be positively located to the top slab by the
provision of dowel bars. The top slab of a twin box culvert is designed as a two span
continuous beam spanning over the central wall and requires top reinforcement in the
region of the central wall.

LOW LEVEL WATER CROSSINGS

In favorable conditions, low level water crossings can provide economical and relatively
simple alternatives to conventional bridges. These are of two basic types:
- fords and bed-level causeways
- vented causeways and submersible bridges
Both types are appropriate for sites where traffic volumes are low or where a reasonably
short detour provides access to an all-weather bridge. For most of the year the maximum
depth of water over the carriage way should be less than 150mm. The success or service

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 63

life of the structure will depend considerably on its hydraulic design. Fords and bed-level
causeways, like conventional bridges, will be constructed so that they cause little
interference with the design flood. Vented causeways and submersible bridges inevitably
disrupt river flow and so are liable to sustain damage or indirectly cause scour to the river
bed or banks which in turn may affect the road approaches to the crossing. Since fords
and bed-level causeways arc overtopped by all water flowing in the river channel there is
no reason to raise the road surface above the stream bed. Vented causeways and
submersible bridges usually present a dry carriage way for ordinary flows and are
overtopped during the design flood. The best location for a low level crossing is similar
to that recommended for a conventional bridge, with the exception that a broad, straight
stretch of river will provide slower and shallower water as well as easier road approaches.
The maximum gradient for motor traffic should be 10 per cent, and for animals 5 per
cent. The change of gradient should be gradual to prevent the underside of vehicles
touching the road and to preserve long sight distances. Equal cut and fill construction of
the approach roads requires less work than the cut and remove spoil, but the placing of
the spoil in the river channel may cause scour problems during a flood. On roads where
speeds are naturally slow and where the horizontal curve on the approach side is clearly
visible, steep approaches may be relieved by a diagonal descent of the river bank. Even
where the road is a single track, it is advisable to make the crossing and its approaches
two lanes in width, so as to allow traffic to pass any vehicle, which breaks down or fails
to mount the gradient.

FORDS

Fords are the simplest form of river crossing at places where the stream is wide,
shallow and slow, the approaches gentle, and the surface firm. The running surface in
the stream can be strengthened and made more even using stones brought in and buried
just below the surface. Alternatively, if stones are carried in the flow, these may be
trapped by barriers made of boulders, gabions or piles.

a. Boulders [fig. a]
Large stones placed across the river bed at the downstream side of the crossing are
claimed to filter the flow of water and retain gravel and sand, which eventually form a
more level and even surface for vehicles.

b. Gabions
A more expensive but durable improvement may be made by replacing the boulders with
gabions to trap river gravel or retain imported material, as shown in Fig b. It is important
that gabions protrude only 150-300mm above the natural bed level of the river,
depending on the nature of the bed material, otherwise they will act as a weir and cause
heavy scour downstream of the crossing.
As an alternative to conventional gabions, tube baskets can be made from a roll of
fencing mesh filled with stone or shingle. During filling, the edges are raised and then
bent over at the top to form a tube and tied; finally a wire rope is attached as shown in Fig
c. After installation, sand and gravel transported by the stream is trapped behind the
baskets and provides a firmer fairly level surface suitable for vehicles.

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 64

 c. Piles
Where gabions are unobtainable, timber piles driven into the river bed with or without
stone protection make an acceptable cut-off wall. To be fully effective, timber piles
should have a length of about 2m, and should be placed at no more than 0.6m centers. If
the river is fast a continuous line of piles may be necessary. A curtain wall may be
required on the upstream as well as the downstream side if the roadbed is erodible.
The top of the piles should be no more than 0.3m above bed level.
N.B: All types of ford may require scour protection on the downstream side, as
shown in the Figures.

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 65

BED LEVEL CAUSEWAYS
Where the type of traffic or the distance to an alternative crossing justifies the expense, a
pavement may be laid on the river bed. A paved ford is also called a bed-level causeway,
drift, paved dip or Irish bridge. Three common designs are shown in Figure. To protect
the pavement from scour damage, curtain walls or aprons are usually required on both the
upstream and the downstream side and these must continue up the approaches to the
height of the design flood.

Figure. Bed level causeways

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 66

If the bed is inerodible the causeway need not be provided with curtain walls, but the bed
on both the upstream and downstream sides of the crossing should be trimmed flat to
reduce turbulence.
Fig (a) Shows a section through a basic bed-level causeway suitable for maximum water
flows below2m/sec and for light traffic. The crossing shown in Fig (b) requires good
concrete technology and may sustain damage to the apron that is difficult to repair. Fig
(c) shows a design employing a practical combination of concrete pavement with flexible
protection that is more suited to routine repair than the rigid concrete curtain wall.

VENTED CAUSEWAYS
Vented causeways are designed to pass an ordinary flood with very little water
overtopping the carriageway, but may still be inundated and unusable for a few days each
year. These structures present a considerable obstacle to the free flow of both normal
flow and the design flood, so they must be built massive enough to withstand water
pressure and debris impact.

Figure: Vented causeways

They must also be provided with adequate scour protection where the bed is erodible,
and marker posts.

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The vents are usually concrete or corrugated steel pipes from 0.6 to 1.0m diameter, set in
a block of concrete or masonry. Where prefabricated pipes are not available, vaulted
masonry tunnels have proved successful. Concrete or masonry retaining walls and aprons
are required to channel the flow and prevent scour at both entrance and exit.
In order to prevent blockage of the stream by debris or silting, careful attention is
required to setting the pipes level with the stream bed and at the same gradient. No part of
the vents should be narrower than the entrances and wedge-shaped deflector ramps may
be required on the upstream side to; guide large floating debris above the vents.
Alternatively, a grill of posts installed upstream of the causeway will collect tree
branches before they reach the structure. The capacity of the vents is sufficient to pass all
ordinary floods without damage and with no more than 150mm of water over-topping the
structure.

SUBMERSIBLE BRIDGES
Where the traffic is dense enough to justify a dry crossing of a substantial ordinary flood
and the design flood is much greater, a submersible bridge is an alternative to a vented
causeway. Submersible bridges are able to pass a larger flow than the vents of a
causeway of the same height but are more susceptible to damage by the design flood. The
overturning moment at the pier foundations becomes very large unless the piers are kept
short, and the horizontal and vertical forces on the deck require solid restraint. Because of
these difficulties, submersible bridges are not recommended for any foundation other
than rock, and even then a vented causeway or conventional bridge may be a more
durable alternative. Construction is usually of reinforced concrete with continuous
reinforcement between the sub-structures and the deck.

Fundamentals of Bridge Design 68