Testing Line Distance Relays

During Their Life Cycle

Fernando Calero and Rajkumar Swaminathan

Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

Presented at the
GCC Power 2016 Conference & Exhibition
Doha, Qatar
November 8–10, 2016
 TESTING LINE DISTANCE RELAYS DURING THEIR LIFE CYCLE

Fernando Calero and Rajkumar Swaminathan*

Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

USA

Summary—Different periods in the life cycle of provide guidance for testing them [3] [4]. This paper
protective relays merit different testing considerations. discusses relay testing concepts, using line distance
When a new type of distance relay is under consideration, relay elements as examples.
acceptance (prequalification) tests are performed to
validate manufacturers’ specifications and relay
Manufacturers follow their own design and
functionality. When a substation design requires a certain manufacturing practices to provide products that are
functionality in the protection scheme, functional tests are competitive and that follow industry standards. The
performed to validate the relay against requirements characteristics and specifications are public and
before it is considered for the project. When a relay is published in data sheets or instruction manuals. The
installed in the field, commissioning tests are performed to tests to validate conformance to standards are called
validate the wiring and the interaction of the unit with the
primary equipment and other intelligent electronic devices
type tests, and there is a test certificate or report
in the scheme. When the unit is in service, periodic tests associated with these tests. In some cases, a third-party
may be performed to validate its functionality. In each certificate is obtained to validate conformance to an
period of the relay life cycle, judgment is required in the industry standard. Most manufacturers subject units to
testing of the unit. Careful consideration and background final manufacturing tests. A test report is often included
information should guide the test procedure. This paper with an IED.
uses line distance relay elements as examples to illustrate
specific concepts.
When a particular model of a protective relay is
considered for application by a utility for the first time,
Keywords—Relay life cycle–Relay testing–Distance utility engineers typically require that the IED conform
relay.
to certain standards and they verify its functionality.
Utilities have acceptance criteria published for
I. INTRODUCTION
manufacturers that the model must satisfy [5]. The
Protective relays have a long history in the electric requirements may call for specific types of testing to
power industry. Their design principles, components, qualify the model for application in the power system.
functionality, complexity, size, and other characteristics Proof of compliance to standards may also be
have evolved over decades. However, their main requested. The most important aspect of verification,
functionality—to protect power system elements (lines, however, is for engineers and technicians to familiarize
transformers, and so on)—has not changed over time, themselves with and clearly understand the
and they remain a fundamental component of power functionality of the unit.
systems. Modern protective relays are computers with Acceptance testing has different meanings to
flexible functionality that provide a wealth of different users [3] [4]. Functional tests are often
information to the user [1]. Testing considerations need performed by electric utilities to validate the published
to adjust to account for the large amount of flexibility functionality and specifications of a device and to get a
and information in modern intelligent electronic devices full understanding of its capabilities. Some utilities
(IEDs) [2]. Fortunately, since the early days of additionally evaluate the relay in a real-time digital
numerical protective relays, there has been literature to

* Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc., 2350 NE Hopkins Court, Pullman, WA 99163 USA • [email protected]
simulation environment by applying the relay to a protective relays used transistor and operational
model of their power system. Once the characteristics amplifier technology [2] [12]. The same operating
and functionality of the device are fully understood, the equations used by electromechanical relays were
model is fully qualified. possible with solid-state technology.
Specific tests may be required by a utility, For example, a classic implementation of a mho
particularly with multifunction relays, to certify the distance element considers two signals, S1 (operating)
functionality for particular applications in the power and S2 (polarizing), that should coincide for at least
system. In a given project, the functionality required of 180 degrees (±90 degrees or 0–180 degrees) [13]. S1 is
a line protection relay can be different from that of the calculated as shown in (1), and S2 is calculated as
same model used in a previous project. shown in (2).
Acceptance testing can also mean testing a group of
S1 = V – Zset I (1)
IEDs upon receipt to ensure that all (or a certain
percentage) of them are operating properly, that the S2 = V (2)
device model is the correct one, and that the units have where:
not been damaged during shipment. V is measured voltage.
Commissioning testing should validate the
I is operating current.
functionality of the relay for a particular application.
Commissioning testing is specific, and there are Zset is relay reach.
guidelines to follow [2] [6] [7]. With modern The angle coincidence can be implemented with an
multifunction protective relays, testing the functionality electromechanical single-phase motor, as shown in
for an application can be much more demanding than in Fig. 1a, or a solid-state circuit with squared signals and
the era of single-function protective relays. As such, the operational amplifiers or transistors, as shown in Fig. 1b
testing should only focus on the specific functionalities [12] [13]. Both implementations provide the same
required from the IED. characteristic result of a mho distance element.
Maintenance testing can be performed to ensure that (a)
an IED is performing correctly after it is in service.
Cylinder
Protective relays are designed for decades of continuous
operation. Modern numerical relays have drastically
reduced periodic maintenance requirements versus
previous technologies [8] [9]. The relays implement S1
self-testing and can report hardware problems so that
users can take action [10]. Self-testing is available for
most IED hardware; most likely, the only hardware not
self-tested is the binary outputs. Some users have
devised means to monitor these automatically as well to
complement the IED self-tests [11]. S2

(b)
II. EVOLUTION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS
S1
The electric power industry is over a century old, but Timer
0.25
power system components still experience failures that cyc
need to be detected and isolated promptly. Protective 0

relays are key components in the protection and control S2

of power systems, and they have evolved with

advancements in power system technology [2] [12]. Fig. 1. a) Electromechanical and b) solid-state implementations of a
classic mho distance element.
A. Electromechanical and Solid-State Relays
The cylinder in Fig. 1a has an axis of rotation.
Electromechanical relays were based on ingenious Springs and permanent magnets in the design produce
applications of electromechanical forces to close torques that should be overcome by the torque produced
contacts. These were generally single-function devices by the angle coincidence of S1 and S2. In
with moving parts that required calibration. For electromechanical relays, setting operating times and
example, the implementation of a basic distance characteristics required careful testing and setting of
element required tapped transformers and inductors as spring torques, damping of magnet distances, and so on.
well as variable resistors. These components produced These devices required periodic calibration of their
torques and forces based on electromagnetic induction. characteristics because these could change over time.
Following the invention of the transistor and solid- In solid-state technology, like the element shown in
state components, for a brief period of time, protective Fig. 1b, timers were implemented with RC time
relays shifted toward these technologies. Solid-state constants. The resistive parameter had to be set
carefully to provide the required timing for an assumed As opposed to electromechanical and solid-state
value of the capacitance. The RC time circuit had to designs, in numerical relays, most of the processing
provide a quarter-cycle coincidence for a 90-degree happens in software instead of hardware. For example,
characteristic. There were other aspects of the design the implementation of the same mho distance element
that required testing and calibration as well. The value described by (1) and (2) and the ±90 degree coincidence
of R or C could change over time, thereby changing the are performed using numbers and mathematical
characteristic of the relay element. Maintenance testing techniques. It is a program that runs endlessly; every
was very critical for this technology. processing interval, it calculates the numbers needed to
These two technologies comprise the protective relay implement the protective relaying elements [14].
designs available prior to numerical IEDs. Both had There is little that can change in numerical relay
requirements for periodic testing of their characteristics hardware during the life cycle of the unit, and present
because they could lose calibration over time. The designs ensure that the natural degradation of any
theoretical mho distance element implemented with (1) component (the anti-aliasing filter, for example) does
and (2) could drastically change its characteristics if not affect the data acquisition process. Transformers
resistor values or spring tensions lost calibration. and A/D circuitry have proven to be stable over time.
Also, the program running in the relay does not change
B. Numerical Protective Relays
over the life cycle of the device.
Numerical protective relays are computers that run a Having a microprocessor also enables checks to
program at specific time intervals. They have a ensure that the hardware is properly running [12]. These
microprocessor or microcontroller that has been checks are called self-tests or watch dog monitoring.
programmed to continuously follow instructions. When these checks fail, the relay disables itself and
A typical numerical relay architecture is shown in issues an alarm to the user. The checks monitor power
Fig. 2. The power system voltages and currents are supply voltage levels and A/D subsystem offsets, which
sampled (Fig. 2a) and these numbers (hence the name covers the failure issues of the relay shown in Fig. 2.
“numerical relays”) are sent to digital filters to extract However, the binary output contacts cannot be checked
the quantities of interest (Fig. 2b) using a cosine filter, without certain wiring tricks [11].
for example. Most numerical relays extract the
fundamental component (50 Hz or 60 Hz, depending on III. TESTING STAGES OVER THE NUMERICAL
the power system), and a few extract the root-mean- RELAY LIFE CYCLE
square (rms) and harmonic quantities as well.
This section illustrates generic topics related to the
testing of numerical relays by reviewing ideas discussed
(a) Voltages/Currents
in the literature [2–10]. As mentioned in the previous
section, a generic line distance relay element is used as
Analog an example. In the Appendix, the methodology used by
Low-Pass Filter one large utility is described to illustrate and contrast
some of the ideas discussed in this section.
A. Acceptance Testing
Analog
Acceptance tests are also called prequalification or
Analog-to-Digital (A/D)
Converter Sampling
evaluation tests. They are used by electric utilities to
qualify new relay models for application in the power
system. The data sheet and instruction manual of the
Analog
device can provide valuable information about the
Digital functionality of the device. Validation can also be
(b) Phasors Cosine Filter
requested via certain test certificates.
Utilities can borrow or purchase a unit from the
|M| δ manufacturer to perform detailed testing of crucial
functions. Functional testing and verification of the
(c) Algorithms
IED’s published characteristics provide valuable
Protection Metering information to prospective users. The users learn how to
interpret the behavior of the IED and learn a great deal
Fig. 2. Numerical protective relay.
about its design. In some cases, power system
If the process in Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b is working simulators are used to qualify protective relays [15].
properly, the metering and protection algorithms of While this kind of testing is expensive and involved, the
Fig. 2c will function correctly. The display of metered user can gain a great deal of confidence in the
values is an indication that the protection algorithms are equipment after simulated faults validate its
functioning properly. functionality.
 Acceptance testing can also refer to the tests needed voltages and currents coming from the power system. In
when accepting a large order of IEDs. Factory this way, the protective relaying functionality is
inspection and sample testing of units (i.e., factory understood and verified.
acceptance testing [FAT]) may be requested. For numerical relays, algorithms are tested and
The common denominator in all of these acceptance proven by the manufacturer with test protocols, as
testing activities is the exchange of information documented by type test certificates. Moreover, if the
between the user and the manufacturer. It is in the protective relay has been in production for many years,
interests of the manufacturer to provide all of the chances are that it has been part of many different
information requested by the user to obtain qualification applications. The goal of acceptance testing is to learn
for the device [5]. A data sheet and test certificates and validate the functionality of the protective relay and
should be available from the manufacturer. The data evaluate its design and performance for particular
sheet of the unit can clearly describe the characteristics power system requirements. Detailed testing can be
of the functionality being considered. Taking a performed per the utility’s standards, historic
quadrilateral ground distance element as an example, oscillography events can be replayed to verify the
Fig. 3 shows the pertinent information for the element desired behavior, and programmable logic can be tested
for a protective relay. and verified.
The datasheet should clearly describe the It is becoming more common for users to have
functionality with setting parameters. For example, access to real-time power system simulators. Users can
Fig. 3 shows the resistive and reactive reaches for the evaluate relay performance with evaluation cases
quadrilateral ground distance element. simulated in real time on a model of their own power
system. This testing is closed-loop testing in which the
power system model is directly influenced by the
behavior of the protective relay under test.
It is, however, far more common to use a test set for
relay testing. As an example, the quadrilateral ground
distance element characteristic described in [13] can be
plotted manually or automatically with test equipment
(see Fig. 4 and Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Automated testing setup for a quadrilateral ground distance

element.

Fig. 3. Example of a data sheet.

Certain hardware-oriented test certificates can also

be requested from a manufacturer. Protective relays are
designed to meet or exceed industry standards. For
example, the IEC 60255 and IEEE C37.90 standards
provide standard tests and requirements for
electromagnetic compatibility and other aspects of the
relay. It is also very common that homologation and/or
familiarization with the functionality of a protective
relay are achieved via testing in a utility’s laboratories. Fig. 5. Automated testing results for a quadrilateral ground distance
In this environment, detailed investigation and testing element.
can be performed with different approaches. Often, a
source of voltages and currents (test set) simulates the
 The test equipment has software to program and The resistive lines for the quadrilateral elements
evaluate the tests to be performed. The user should should correspond to the relay characteristic. In the
understand the test software and the capabilities of the characteristic shown in Fig. 6, the right resistive
test equipment well so that the test results can be readily element tilts with the line impedance angle. The left
understood. resistive line is vertical and corresponds to the
Fortunately, during this phase the testing is minimum value of the setting for Zones 1–5.
performed in a very controlled environment, generally Certain auxiliary functions that may interfere with
with sufficient time to rectify issues. Careful testing should be disabled. For example, because of the
understanding of the test software and the relay way the automated testing operates, the loss-of-
characteristics is required to obtain the proper results. potential (LOP) function may block the operation of the
During this period, if a test fails, it most likely due to elements and should be disabled.
parameters in the test software that were not properly In some designs there are dynamic characteristics
set. For example, the following factors have been based on certain measurements. For example, the I2/I1
shown to influence the results of the quadrilateral magnitude ratio can be used to shift the right resistive
ground distance element used as the example. line to the left for three-phase faults.
Distance elements are supervised by directional The main objectives of testing in this stage should be
elements. Testing of the distance element characteristic familiarization with and validation of the functionality
should be done with a constant source impedance model that is required. Generally, acceptance testing covers
to allow proper directional element decision making. In the functions the user wants to verify and takes as long
a constant source impedance model, the voltages and as necessary, within reasonable margins.
currents applied in the test are calculated for a simple Visiting the factory and testing characteristics of
power system with a single source and line impedance. certain functions prior to accepting a protective relay
Directional elements are designed under the assumption are also common activities. Users can also perform spot
that for a forward fault, the V2/I2 (negative-sequence checks of certain IED functions and review the
ratio) or V0/I0 (zero-sequence ratio) represent –Zs (the manufacturing process and quality programs. This
negative of the source impedance). If the directional activity allows users to learn about the quality programs
element does not properly determine the direction to the used by the manufacturer in the manufacturing of the
fault, the distance element does not operate. IEDs.
Quadrilateral elements have parameters that
B. Commissioning Testing
determine their plot on the R-X plane. Fig. 6 shows the
characteristic of the example quadrilateral ground The commissioning of the protection systems in an
distance element. electrical installation (e.g., a substation or power plant)
jX should be a planned activity with intelligent choices.
TANG + CANG
XG1
The idea is to perform the necessary testing of the relay
functionality to prove the healthiness of the hardware,
the set points, and integrity with other equipment or
devices [6] [7]. For the particular IED being tested,
most of the configuration work should have been
completed in the laboratory. For the quadrilateral
ground distance element example, testing of the
characteristic should have occurred during acceptance
Z1ANG RG1 R
testing. The characteristics of the protective relay
should be known in detail prior to commissioning
testing.
Min(RG1, RG2, RG3, RG4, RG5)
Fig. 7 shows four points that are sufficient to verify
Fig. 6. Example of a quadrilateral ground distance element the settings of a quadrilateral ground distance element
characteristic.
during commissioning. The reactive reach (X setting)
The TANG angle is a relay setting. The CANG angle and the resistive reach (R setting) can be tested with
is the angle difference between the line positive- two points for each, one point outside the characteristic
sequence impedance and the angle of the zero-sequence zone and the other point inside the characteristic zone.
impedance, as described in (3) [13]. Commissioning testing is an activity that places a
great deal of stress on the engineers and technicians
 ZL0  performing the work. The testing should be minimal but
CANG
= – arg  2 +  (3)
 ZL1  adequate to properly evaluate the relay functionality. It
This angle is mostly ignored by users, but it can is therefore very appropriate to limit the testing to the
cause discrepancies between the observed and expected minimum needed to validate the functionality required.
results. The automated testing software should consider The spot testing in Fig. 7 illustrates this point.
shifts due to both angles.
 jX the measured offset (which should be close to 0 mV) is
outside set boundaries. The protective relay has
XG1 disabled itself because the measurements it is receiving
are not accurate; the A/D subsystem has clearly failed.
=>STA A

Failures
A/D OFFSET FAILURE

Channel Offsets (mV) W=Warn F=Fail

Z1ANG RG1 R CH1 CH2 CH3 CH4 CH5 CH6 CH7 CH8 CH9 CH10 CH11 CH12 MOF
55F 56F 56F 59F 51F 54F 55F 56F 49F 49F 51F 52F -10

Power Supply Voltages (V) W=Warn F=Fail

Fig. 7. Spot testing of the quadrilateral ground distance element (red 3.3V_PS 5V_PS N5V_PS 15V_PS N15V_PS
3.29 4.98 -4.98 14.97 -14.99
points are outside the characteristic and green points are inside the
characteristic). Temperature
41.1 Degrees Celsius
The first test performed during commissioning
should check the hardware healthiness and the proper Communication Interfaces

wiring of binary and analog inputs. The relay metering Active High-Accuracy Time Synchronization Source: NONE
functionality is also important. If the protective relay is IRIG-B Source Absent

metering properly, it is also executing the protective Relay Programming Environment Errors
No Errors
relaying functions properly.
Validating the protective relaying functionality Relay Disabled
during the acceptance testing period ensures that the Fig. 8. A self-test report from a protective relay with a failure.
already tested and known protective relaying functions
are operating as tested in the laboratory. The situation in Fig. 8 shows the advantage of
Besides protective relaying functions, other checks having intelligence in the relay to determine when there
are needed during commissioning. The wiring of the is a failure in the unit. This allows utilities to reconsider
binary inputs and outputs should be checked carefully maintenance programs for protective relays in the
and validated. Functions or interlocks implemented in following ways:
the programmable logic should be tested as well. • After commissioning, continue to monitor the
Programmable logic in modern relays is very flexible, self-test functionality of protective relays.
and the programmed functionality should be tested. • Over long periods, monitor the metering of
protective relays. If the metering is correct, then
C. Maintenance Testing the protective relay is sound. Metering values
Electromechanical and solid-state relays required can be verified against those of other devices in
injection boxes to test settings and also required manual the system.
setup (e.g., by adjusting screws and taps). By their • Devise an automatic comparison of metered
nature, and depending on the amount of vibration values. This can be done with automation
present in the installation (power plants often have controllers automatically comparing the
significant amounts of vibration), electromechanical metering values of two devices measuring from
and solid-state relays lose their calibration over time. the same location. If the measurements are the
Component degradation can also factor into this same, within a margin, then the protective
problem. Traditionally, therefore, utilities had a relays are sound [16].
periodic (every two years or so) maintenance program There are other approaches that take advantage of
to validate protective relay characteristics and settings the reporting capabilities of numerical relays. For
[2] [3] [4]. example, using time-synchronized measurements
One of the many benefits of numerical relays is that (synchrophasors), users can devise continuous testing
little to no maintenance is required [3]. Reference [8] schemes for the measurements. If a numerical relay is
discusses the maintenance interval for numerical IEDs measuring properly, the protective relaying
with self-testing. The routine tests for numerical relays functionality is working properly.
only include meter checks and binary output checks. If Periodic testing of the relay output contacts to ensure
the relay is measuring properly, and no self-test has that they are operational can also be implemented
failed, there is no reason to test the relay further. Relay automatically. Protective relays may not take action for
self-testing saves routine testing time [8]. very long periods of time; making sure that they are
The A/D conversion in modern numerical relays available when needed is always a concern. Some
does not drift over time, and this subsystem is clever schemes take advantage of programmable logic
monitored by the self-test mechanism of the relay. to test binary outputs, as described in [11].
Fig. 8 shows a report from a line distance relay with
a failure. The A/D conversion system has failed because
 IV. CONCLUSION the particular application. The main objectives are to
Modern protective relays have made the operation of validate the main protective functions for selectivity
power systems more reliable and efficient. and operating time for internal faults, to validate
Multifunction IEDs have several capabilities, and most security for external faults, and to fine-tune the setting
of the protective relaying functionality is programmed parameters.
in instructions that run continously in hardware. Having B. Laboratory Acceptance Tests
many capabilities in one device requires users to learn
The utility engineers and manufacturer’s technical
and verify what is published in the data sheet and
representative use the finalized configuration file
instruction manual. This should be done in the
approved after the real-time simulator testing to review
laboratory, not the substation. Acceptance testing
in detail the characteristics of the unit. The utility
verifies that units meet the requirements for particular verifies the relay element pickup characteristics and
functions and protective relaying principles.
validates the operating times. At this time, the full
Modern protective relays are computers. Testing a
characteristics of the distance elements, for example,
single unit and making sure the protective relaying are plotted and verified.
characteristiccs are correct implies that the tests are
valid for all units with similar characteristics. The C. Commissioning Tests
computer program running internally is the same and Commissioning tests focus on the integration of the
does not change over time. device into the overall scheme for protection and
One of the most stressful activities in a project is the control in the substation. A few test points are selected
commissioning stage. Commissioning testing can be to validate functionality. No detailed plots of
made simpler and more efficient by focusing on testing characteristics are programmed in the test protocol. The
key points in the characteristics of the relay. wiring and programmed logic functions are verified
Commissioning testing should spot check certain points together with any communications of parameters to the
of the key functions. Most of the detailed functionality control center.
should have been tested in the laboratory during
acceptance testing. D. Maintenance Tests
Maintenance testing should take advantage of the No routine maintenance tests are programmed for
self-test functionality of protective relays. The only numerical relays. The utility fully relies on the internal
routine testing required for numerical relays is meter self-tests of the devices.
checks and binary output checks. The sequence of
events (SOE) report and oscillography can be used to VI. REFERENCES
properly evaluate the operation of protective relays and [1] R. D. Kirby and R. A. Schwartz, “Microprocessor-Based
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Reliability With Lower Maintenance Costs,” proceedings of the
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[3] J. J. Kumm, M. S. Weber, E. O. Schweitzer, III, and D. Hou,
the life of their protective relays as follows. “Philosophies for Testing Protective Relays,” proceedings of the
A. Prequalification Tests 47th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers,
College Station, TX, March 1994.
The manufacturer receives all of the necessary [4] C. Werstiuk, “Testing Requirements for Microprocessor
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[6] K. Zimmerman, “Commissioning of Protective Relay Systems,”
a presentation about the relay features. The presentation proceedings of the 61st Annual Conference for Protective Relay
includes an exchange of ideas and discussion about how Engineers, College Station, TX, April 2008.
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the relay configuration file for the application. The “Predicting the Optimum Routine Test Interval for Protective
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[10] J. J. Kumm, E. O. Schweitzer, III, and D. Hou, “Assessing the
Effectiveness of Self-Tests and Other Monitoring Means in
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VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Fernando Calero is a principal engineer in the Schweitzer
Engineering Laboratories, Inc. (SEL) international organization. His
responsibilities include application support for SEL products, training
and technical support for SEL customers, and internal training and
mentoring of SEL engineers. He started his professional career with
the ABB relay division in Coral Springs, Florida, where he
participated in product development and technical support for
protective relays. He also worked for Florida Power & Light in the
energy management system group and for the Siemens energy
automation group. Since 2000, he has worked for SEL as an
application engineer. He holds five patents and has written technical
papers on protective relaying, remedial action schemes, and other
protection and control applications.

Rajkumar Swaminathan is a protection engineering manager in the

sales and customer service division of Schweitzer Engineering
Laboratories, Inc. (SEL). He received his bachelor’s degree in
electrical and electronics engineering from the University of Madras,
India, in 1997. Rajkumar has over 15 years of experience in power
system protection application, design, testing, and commissioning. He
worked as a commissioning engineer at M/S Voltech Engineers in
India and as a senior technical support engineer at Schneider Electric
in Saudi Arabia before joining SEL Bahrain.

© 2016 by Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

All rights reserved.
20160602 • TP6763-01