PHOTOGRAMMETRY

STEREOSCOPY

FLIGHT PLANNING

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC DEFINITIONS

GROUND CONTROL

INTRODUCTION

Before aerial photography and photogrammetry became a reliable mapping tool,

planimetric and topographic mapping were primarily the products of the surveyor. Map
compilation consisted of control computations and the compilation and assembly of field
observations and measurements. Prior to World War II, photogrammetry was recognized
mostly as a European science. Other than military and government use, it was not readily
practiced in the private or engineering sectors of the United states.

Since the domestic introduction of large scale map compilation by photogrammetric

methods, the surveyor's role has continually changed in parallel with the rapid
improvement of photogrammetric instrumentation and techniques.

Today, a project comprising as few as five to six acres becomes an economic

consideration with photogrammetric methods. It is now generally accepted that
photogrammetric mapping from aerial photographs is the best mapping procedure yet
developed for both large and small scale projects. It is faster and less expensive than any
other method and provides more complete and accurate detail, supported by evidence that
is historically retained in the wealth of detail of the aerial photograph.

As versatile and diversified as photogrammetry has become so has the surveyor's role in
supplying the quality foundation on which good mapping is based. It is impossible to
make a map from aerial photographs without the underlying data provided by field
surveys.

FIELD SURVEYS

Field surveys are required to:

1. Provide the basic horizontal and vertical control needed to determine the scale,
azimuths, and basis of data for the photogrammetric process,

2. Provide mapping of certain desert or plain areas, sandy beaches, or snow where
photographs do not show the ground surface well.
 3. Provide mapping of deep canyons or high obstructions that conceal the ground
surface in the photographs.

4. Provide mapping of areas covered with dense conifer or tropical rain forests.

5. Provide as-built and sub-surface structure detail.

6. Provide mapping of boundary and land net features.

7. Secure information which cannot be obtained solely from the observation of

aerial photographs, and.

8. Obtain precise supplemental map data such as cross-sections, field edit and
map accuracy verification.

SURVEYING ISSUES

In the interest of the complimentary roles between the surveyor and photogrammetrist,
this lesson is intended to address the most often asked questions about photogrammetric
surveys and to provide assistance in effecting the most applicable map product in an
economic and timely manner.

There are many unique and diverse applications in the field of photogrammetry. Each
project must be tailored to the specifics of the user; from small "ad-hoc" projects to
comprehensive mapping programs of large regional areas. Although it is not the intent to
expand on the theories of photogrammetry, some basic fundamentals must be considered
if the surveyor and photogrammetrist are to formulate their most effective plan of
operation. Questions the surveyor is most often confronted with in a photogrammetric
project are:

How to design the most expedient mapping plan for a given project?

How many photographs (stereo models) will be required to cover a given project
area?

How many horizontal and vertical control points will be required?

Will the use and accuracy of aerotriangulation satisfy the extension of photo
control?

What must the distribution of control points be?

What size targets will be required?

What map accuracy can be expected?

DEFINITION

Photogrammetry is defined as the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable

information and measurements form aerial photography.

SCALE

By design, the successful execution of any photogrammetric project depends upon good
quality photography. Aerial photographs taken with a frame camera are commonly
classified as either vertical or oblique. Vertical photographs having a 9-inch by 9-inch
format are the most common type taken for photogrammetric work.

Basically, there are two types of aerial cameras presently used for photogrammetric
mapping. They are:

1. The 6" focal length, wide angle lens, designed for universal mapping.

2. The 31/2" focal length, super-wide angle lens, designed to accomplish high altitude,
reconnaissance-type mapping using a single engine aircraft.

Of these available camera types, the 6-inch focal length lens provides the best
compromise between stereo-photo geometrical strength, scale and ground coverage. This
is the focal length that is in most common use throughout the world in photogrammetry
today. The comparative measure of stereoscopic geometrical strength in stereo
photography is generally expressed in terms of base to height ratio (B/H). Geometrical
strength increases with increased B/H ratios; for the larger these ratios become, the
greater the angles of intersection of corresponding light rays; thus increasing the
stereoplotter pointing accuracy. For this reason, the 31/2-inch focal length lens provides
better photography from a geometrical strength point of view, and in certain instances is
used to increase the vertical accuracy in large scale mapping.

In order for the photography to satisfactorily serve its intended purposes, the
photographic flight mission must be carefully planned and faithfully executed according
to the flight plan. A flight plan generally consists of two items:

1. A flight map which shows where the photos are to be taken.

2. Specifications which give the details on how to take the photos including
requirements such as camera and film requirements, scale, flying height and a
flight schedule which will coincide with completion of control pre-marking.
 3.

Figure 1 How an Aerial Photograph is taken

The scale of vertical photograph is the ratio of photographic distance to the distance it
represents on the ground. In as much as a single frame perspective photograph represents
a plane system, it follows that the scale of a vertical photograph will change throughout
the photograph with variations in the elevation of the ground. As flying height above the
terrain increases, scale decreases; as ground elevation increases, scale increases. These
are important points to remember when considering photographic scale.

In photogrammetric work it is convenient to use an average photo scale which applies to

the average terrain elevation in the project area. The required flying height above
average terrain (AMT) and above mean sea level (ASL) can be readily calculated once
the required photo scale has been selected and the camera focal length is known.

Height above mean terrain (in feet)

= Camera focal length in inches x scale of Photography ft/in
= feet AMT

Height above sea level (in feet)

= Camera focal length in inches x scale of Photography ft/in
+ avg. terrain = feet ASL.

Vertical aerial photographic coverage of an area is normally taken as a series of

overlapping flight strips. To assure stereoscopic coverage of an area, a forward overlap of
55 to 60 percent, and a side lap of 30 percent is required.
 Figure2 shows how stereoscopic overlaps are obtained

Figure 3 Overlap Area and Stereo Model

The neat-model for any overlapping stereo pair is the area between adjacent principal
points and extending in the y direction to the middle of the side lap area. For 60 percent
forward overlap and 30 percent side lap, the photographic area of the neat-model is 3.6
inches by 6.3 inches. In photogrammetric mapping, the actual area that is compiled, per
stereo-pair, is generally limited to the neat-model area. Therefore, to roughly estimate the
number of stereo models that must be compiled in order to map a given area, the area to
be covered must be divided by the area of each neat-model. Once the photo scale is
selected, the area covered by a 9-inch square single vertical aerial photo may be readily
calculated.

PLOTTING INSTRUMENTS

There are many types of photogrammetric plotting instruments in use today, each make
and model having its own special features, advantages, disadvantages, and certain
inherent precision. The three most commonly recognized designs are:

1. The double projection stereo-plotters.

2. The optical-train universal stereo-plotters.

3. The analytical stereo-plotters.

4. Softcopy stereo-plotters

Although the design characteristics of the various stereo-plotting instruments may vary
significantly, they all operate on the principal of stereovision. Stereovision occurs when
two photographs are made of the same object from different positions in space, and then
instrumented so that he right-hand photograph is seen by the right eye, and the left-hand
photograph is seen by the left eye. The perspective intersection of light rays of
corresponding images in the photographic pair is expressed as a three dimensional model
and allows the observer the ability to view depth perception. The stereo-plotting
instrument in turn, makes it possible for an observer to place the photographs in their
proper geometric relationship with respect to their true position on the ground and to
locate and plot planimetric features and contour lines by viewing the photographs in three
dimension.

More technically defined, model orientation of two stereo photographs in the plotting
instrument is the re-construction of intersecting light rays of identical images from two
separate photo stations in space. The intersection of light rays from corresponding image
points is sometimes referred to as the picture plane of the stereo-model. For stereoscopic
measurement of corresponding images in the stereo-plotter, the intersection of light rays
in the instrument's optical-train is referenced by a black or white dot known as the
floating mark.

This floating mark is also seen stereoscopically in respect to the re-construction of image
rays, and is viewed in direct relationship to the photographic image scale. The size of the
floating mark will vary from .025 mm to over .080 mm, depending on the type and
accuracy of the respective stereo-plotting instrument. The nomenclature of the stereo-
plotter and floating mark accuracy is important to the surveyor, since the size of aerial
targets or photo identities must correspond closely in image size. In other words, the
floating mark can "swim" within a target too large, or totally obliterate a target too small.
It is generally found that the greater the precision (C-Factor) in the plotting instrument,
the higher the allowable flying height. This relationship is of great value due to the fact
that increasing the flying height in turn increases the ground coverage per photograph,
and therefore reduces the necessary ground control. Due to the fact that vertical accuracy
is usually the limiting factor in the photogrammetric process, the flying height is often
derived by the contour interval of the finished map. This relationship is expressed as a
precision factor, referred to as the "C" factor of the photogrammetric equipment, and
applies to 6-inch focal length aerial photography only.

"C factor" = Flying Height above Mean Terrain /Contour Interval

OR C = H/CI

C-factors as given by the instrument manufacturers should be considered as applicable to

the calibration specifications of specific equipment, and not to the inherent errors of the
photogrammetric process.

Contour plotting accuracy of course, depends not only on the stereo-plotting instrument,
but also upon the characteristics of the aerial camera, the quality of the photography,
method of photo control, operator pointing ability, and many other errors inherent to the
photogrammetric process. All of these factors combined give what may be referred to as
an "effective C-Factor." Accordingly, the instrument rated C-Factor should be reduced
approximately 20 to 25 percent for large scale precision plotting. For example, an
instrument with a C-Factor of 1500 should probably be considered to have an effective C-
Factor more in the range of about 1200 for plotting large scale design mapping where
grading plans or earth quantities are a consideration. Applying this equation, an
instrument having a C-Factor of 1200, can theoretically plot a 1-foot contour interval
from photography taken at 1200 feet above terrain.

SOURCES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Aerial photographs that are used for topographic mapping purposes are invariably flown
specifically to satisfy the requirements of each individual project. Aerial photographs two
or more years old usually have little value if the latest topographic and cultural details are
to be accurately mapped. However, there are many engineering and scientific studies that
actually require the use of dated (or historical) aerial photographs. The National
Cartographic Information Center (NCIC) of the U.S. Geological Survey maintains a
summary record of existing, in-progress, and planned aerial photography in the United
States. Included in the record are aerial photographs acquired or to be acquired by
agencies of the federal and state governments as well as some commercial firms. The
record provides information on the locations of the photographic coverage, scales, types
of camera, dates of photography, and addresses for making purchase inquiry. The
summary record is continuously updated by NCIC and is an excellent source for
information concerning the availability of existing aerial photography for a given
location.
CHECKING CONTOURS FROM AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

The standard method of checking contours produced by photogrammetric methods is to

run check cross sections across the contour map and compare the check section with the
profile from the contour map.