Resiliency in New York City's Heat-Vulnerable Neighborhoods

Resiliency in New York City’s
Heat-Vulnerable Neighborhoods
Summer 2015-2019 thermal imagery of New York City, developed from NASA LANDSAT Data. Red
areas indicate hotspots across the city. (Mayor’s Office of Resiliency)
Urban Design Forum Turning the Heat
Authors
Digser Abreu
Editors
George Piazza
Table of Contents
Lida Aljabar Katherine Sacco
Introduction 9
Abraham Bendheim
Cyrus Blankinship Editorial Support
Brandon Cappellari Julia Bontempo
Eileen Chen
Renée Crowley
Andrew Pasquier
Daniel McPhee
Recommendations 14
→ Design 16
Rhonda-Lee Davis
Dorraine Duncan Design
Lydia Gaby Partners & Partners
Annemarie Gray
Gregory Harasym
→ Policy 41
Mike Harrington
Michael Izzo
Urban Design Forum
114 Bowery, Suite 301 → Finance 63
Catherine Joseph New York, NY 10013
Gloria Lau urbandesignforum.org → Community Resiliency 79
Amy Macdonald
Rebecca Macklis
Amritha Mahesh
Abbreviations 97
Pallavi Mantha
Kathy Mu Acknowledgments 99
Manuela Powidayko
Jill Schmidt
Mallory Taub
Endnotes 102
Autumn Visconti
Turning the Heat: Resiliency in New York City’s Heat-Vulnerable Neighborhoods

© May 2020 Urban Design Forum
4 5
A Letter from the

Executive Director
We applaud the City of New York and the Mayor’s Office of Resiliency for
investing resources in protecting New Yorkers from the threat of extreme
heat and rising temperatures due to climate change. These recommen-
dations aim to advance the work the City has begun through its Cool
Neighborhoods NYC initiative and to support heat resiliency in the
neighborhoods at greatest risk.
The Urban Design Forum believes that designers have a responsibility

to serve our City’s most vulnerable communities. To this end, our an-
nual Forefront Fellowship gathers 25 emerging leaders to study critical
issues facing the city. This year, we assembled a diverse cohort of ar-
chitects, planners, developers, and advocates to research strategies to
improve heat resiliency for the residents and neighborhoods at greatest
risk. This cohort worked in partnership with the Mayor’s Office of Resil-
iency and many other stakeholders, who generously contributed their
time and expertise, to draft these recommendations.
We commend the City of New York and the Mayor’s Office of Resilien-
cy for undertaking this timely and important project and thank them
for their partnership. We owe special thanks to our Forefront Fellows
for their critical thinking and commitment to design excellence as they
worked to improve the built environment of neighborhoods across the
five boroughs.
We hope that these guidelines will be a valuable resource to City offi-

cials, architects, designers, developers, and community leaders as they
work to protect the city from rising temperatures and other impacts of
climate change in the coming years.
Daniel McPhee
Executive Director
Urban Design Forum
Windows with external shading on Meister Hall at Bronx Community College. (Forefront Fellows)
6 7
Intro
ducito
n
Extreme heat poses an enormous public health threat to

New York City. And while changes to the built environment
can help the city mitigate and adapt to extreme heat, these
strategies must prioritize the communities of color and low-
income communities that are at greatest risk of heat-related
Kips Bay Boys & Girls Club. (Forefront Fellows) illness and death.
8 Introduction 9
When we reflect on summer days in New a city than in surrounding areas—only often lack the social infrastructure like The HVI makes clear that heat resiliency
York City, we often think of makeshift fire compounds New York City’s rising cool gathering places and built environ- is a climate justice issue. From a built
hydrant sprinklers spewing water onto temperatures.4 ment features like shading and green environment perspective, strategies to
the street, commuters waiting on sweaty The threat of extreme heat is difficult to space that can help mitigate the impacts improve heat resiliency must be focused
subway platforms, and people of all ages forecast and harder to communicate, in of extreme heat. Across the United on the communities of color and low-in-
crowding our city’s pools and beaches. part because of the very images of sum- States, formerly redlined areas are con- come communities that are at greatest
But extreme heat poses a hidden health mertime leisure most frequently associ- sistently hotter than non-redlined areas, risk. These neighborhoods in the Bronx,
threat, making it, on average, the most ated with heat. Yet particularly for New with land surface temperatures as much Brooklyn, Queens, and Upper Manhattan
fatal of all extreme weather events in Yorkers without reliable indoor cooling as 7°C hotter than adjacent non-redlined must be where New York City focuses
New York.1 City data reveals that every at home, heat can be deadly. areas.10 its efforts to improve indoor tempera-
summer there are an average of 450 ture through building retrofits, mitigate
heat-related emergency department An array of social, health, and environ- Auto shops along Jerome Avenue the urban heat island effect through
in Fordham Heights. (Forefront
visits, 150 heat-related hospital admis- mental factors impact heat vulnerability. Fellows) public realm interventions, and develop
sions, 13 heat stroke deaths, and around Only around 75% of New Yorkers have other targeted neighborhood-specific
115 excess deaths from heat-related residential air conditioning, and not strategies.
causes.2 everyone who has an air conditioner
uses it.5, 6 Pre-existing health risk fac- The City’s ongoing Cool Neighborhoods
tors, such as cardiovascular disease, program encompasses a set of critical
diabetes, and drug or alcohol abuse can strategies to mitigate and adapt to the
increase risk of heat-related deaths. threat of extreme heat, both citywide
Older adults are also at greater risk.7 and in high-risk neighborhoods identi-
fied by the HVI.13 The program includes
The built environment is another key design strategies like planting street
factor in heat vulnerability. New Yorkers trees in targeted neighborhoods and
who live in neighborhoods with hotter installing cool roofs across the city.
daytime surface temperatures and less The City’s Heat Vulnerability Index (HVI) It also includes community resilience
green space are at higher risk of dying maps the inequitable impacts of extreme strategies, such as training home health
during a heat wave.8 Land use adjacen- heat at a neighborhood level. The HVI, aides on heat risk and promoting the “Be
cies, such as proximity to highways developed by the Department of Health a Buddy” program to strengthen social
or industrial areas, heighten surface and Columbia University, analyzes envi- cohesion.
Smaller multi-family buildings in Central
temperatures, while poor insulation ronmental and social factors by census
Harlem. (Forefront Fellows) and leaky building envelopes can make The workshop proceedings presented in
tract across the five boroughs to identify this report aim to complement the Cool
cooling difficult and costly. which neighborhoods are at higher risk Neighborhoods work by interrogating
Moreover, New York City’s hot summers Most starkly, communities of color and for heat-related deaths.11 The twelve the role existing buildings can play in
are only getting hotter. Due to climate low-income communities are dispro- neighborhoods that rank highest on the advancing equitable heat resiliency.
change, by the 2050s, average annual portionately impacted by extreme heat. HVI are low-income neighborhoods with The recommended strategies primarily
temperatures in New York are projected Researchers have found that neighbor- residents who are predominantly people target existing buildings, given that more
to increase by 4.1 to 5.7°F.3 Heat waves hoods where more households receive of color. These communities include than 90% of New York’s current building
will also happen more often: by the public assistance are at higher risk of Bedford-Stuyvesant, Bushwick, and stock will still exist in 2050.14 They also
2080s, the frequency of heat waves is dying during a heat wave. They also Brownsville in Brooklyn; Belmont and aim to prioritize the city’s most heat-vul-
projected to triple. The urban heat island found that non-Latino Black New Yorkers East Tremont, Morrisania, and High- nerable neighborhoods, where renewed
effect—which can result in temperatures are at higher risk.9 Neighborhoods that bridge in the Bronx; and Central Harlem investment must ensure that low-income
as much as 22°F higher after sunset in have faced decades of disinvestment in Upper Manhattan.12 communities and communities of color
10 Introduction Introduction 11
are protected from the life-threatening partnered with the Mayor’s Office of mitigate against thermal absorption and forests serve neighborhoods without
impacts of extreme heat. Resiliency to address how urban design facilitate ventilation and cooling during permanent cooling infrastructure? Could
can mitigate the impacts of extreme heat serious heat events. Policy interventions leasing solar window louvers in NYCHA
in New York City’s most heat vulnerable can encourage wider adoption of build- buildings generate renewable energy
neighborhoods. The Forum convened a ing retrofits, while creative financing while also producing revenue for other
diverse group of 25 emerging leaders— can help make these retrofits possible. heat resiliency initiatives? Could naming
from resiliency experts to environmental Strengthening community assets and heat waves better communicate the
justice advocates to landscape archi- communications strategies can help threat of extreme heat?
tects and more—to tackle this question ensure that the most vulnerable are These recommendations aim to provide a
as part of the Forefront Fellowship. able to access the resources they need starting place for designers, policymak-
Fellows spent three months studying during extreme heat events. ers, and community leaders to incorpo-
diverse building typologies, surveying rate heat resiliency strategies into their
five neighborhoods, and interviewing own practice. The Forum hopes that this
nearly 40 New York-based and inter- report inspires continuing conversations
Shaded parks like this one in Fordham Heights could
host pop-up cool-down programming. (Forefront Fellows) national stakeholders, to produce rec- and action on building a healthier, more
ommendations for strengthening heat resilient, and more equitable city.
We release this report as New York resiliency across the city.
faces the enormous public health and Forefront Fellows examined single-fam-
economic crises posed by the corona- ily, multi-family, New York City Housing
virus pandemic, which has revealed and Authority (NYCHA), mixed-use, and
deepened the city’s inequalities. Data non-residential buildings. They visited
shows that the neighborhoods hit hard- five neighborhoods that are among the
est by coronavirus infections correlate highest-scoring on the Heat Vulnera-
with areas with lower household median bility Index: Mott Haven and Fordham
income, more people of color, higher Heights in the Bronx, Flatbush in Brook- Cooling landscaping at the Marcus Garvey Apartments.
(Forefront Fellows)
rates of uninsurance, and more crowded lyn, Dutch Kills in Queens, and Central
housing.15 Many of these neighborhoods Harlem in Manhattan. They interviewed
also face the worst impacts of climate architects, community leaders, policy The report is divided into four chapters:
change, including extreme heat. The experts, and researchers. Through this Design, Policy, Finance, and Community
response to the current pandemic must research, Fellows generated an expan- Resiliency, compiling recommended
center these neighborhoods, especially sive list of recommendations and strate- strategies in each category. Case studies
as the outbreak and extreme heat may gies that the Forum has compiled in this and precedents from across the world
have cascading public health impacts. report. support many of the recommendations,
Further, the city’s recovery must address About This Report while field notes highlight relevance to
the structural inequities that put some the neighborhoods Fellows visited.
New Yorkers at greater risk in times The Forefront Fellows’ work culminated
in a collection of recommendations for In addition to recommendations for stra-
of crisis, for the city to emerge more tegically expanding existing programs
resilient in the face of the next threat it addressing the threat of extreme heat
through the built environment, with and adopting proven best practices,
confronts: climate change. Fellows propose creative solutions to
emphasis on existing buildings and
highly heat-vulnerable neighborhoods. some of the most intractable heat resil-
About the Forefront Fellowship iency challenges. Could cool-down pop-
Building-scale design strategies can ups like temporary pools or deployable
In 2019-2020, the Urban Design Forum
12 Introduction Introduction 13
Urban
Turning
Design
the Forum
Heat Turning the Heat
Rec
om
me
s
nd
n
atio
The Marcus Garvey Apartments,

an affordable housing complex
in Brownsville, house a solar
microgrid on their rooftops.
(Forefront Fellows)
14 Recommendations
Introduction 14 Introduction 15
Turning
Urban the Heat
Design Forum Turning the Heat
Desi
Design
1. Provide Strategic Landscape Design 18
2. Retrofit Building Envelopes 20
3. Install Exterior Shading 23
4. Scale Up Green Roofs for Existing Buildings 26
gn
5. Expand Cool Roofs and Facades for Existing Buildings 29
6. Introduce Green Facades 32
7. Increase Shade and Green Infrastructure in the 34
Public Realm
8. Strategically Augment Shade Infrastructure 37
The median age of New York City’s residential buildings

is 90 years, and more than 90% of the city’s one million
current buildings will still stand in 2050.1 New building
design alone cannot not solve the need for heat resiliency—
existing buildings must also be equipped to withstand rising
temperatures. The recommendations in this chapter address
building types ranging from single-family to multi-family
to New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA) campuses.
Through building-scale and public realm strategies, New
York City’s built environment can adapt to intensifying
extreme heat events.
16 Recommendations 16 Design 17
benefit from planting trees and vegetation that lower surface and air temperatures by
providing shade and evapotranspiration. During peak summer, these interventions
can reduce temperatures by 2–9°F.17 Deciduous trees can provide shade on walls
and windows, lowering heat gain during the summer while still allowing sunlight
to warm the building during the winter. Large trees are even more effective as they
also shade portions of the roof, a co-benefit more easily achieved around low-rise
single-family structures. Planting trees around houses to shade windows can result
in cooling energy savings up to 47%, with greatest impact when trees are planted to
the west and southwest of buildings.18 In areas where trees and vegetation do not fit,
such as in front of garage entrances, built coverings such as pergolas can provide
shade to lower outdoor temperature.
→ Landscape Vacant and Under-Utilized Lots

For areas with dense, low-rise residential buildings, such as row houses, the City
should consider transforming any vacant and under-utilized lots into lush and green
cooling parcels for the neighborhood. Many low-density, heat-vulnerable neigh-
borhoods hold a number of small vacant or abandoned parcels, many of which are
owned by the City of New York. Densely reforesting vacant lots, creating community
gardens, or restoring natural meadows can have a cooling effect on the immediate
Green infill of a vacant lot. (Partner & Partners) vicinity.19
Local Context: East Flatbush
1 Provide Strategic Landscape Many single-family lots in East Flat-
Design bush feature hardscapes and driveways

in their front yard, while other front
yards are landscaped. One block—East
Tree plantings, permeable paving, and other green infrastructure 32nd Street between Tilden and Snyder
Avenues—won Honorable Mention in the
strategies provide cooling benefits such as shading and evapo-
Brooklyn Botanic Garden’s Greenest
transpiration. Strategic landscape design can maximize the Block in Brooklyn contest in 2019.
impact of these greening strategies in lower-density neighbor- Tree cover is uneven on sidewalks
and streets. In some areas, particu-
hoods. In addition to providing cooling benefits, trees and veg- larly near SUNY Downstate, below-grade
etation can produce direct energy savings, which research has infrastructure such as gas lines pro-
hibits street tree planting.
suggested could reduce carbon emissions in U.S. metropolitan
areas by roughly 1.5–5%.16 Hardscape front yards in East Flatbush.
(Forefront Fellows)
Recommendations
→ Plant Trees and Vegetation on Residential Lots
With larger front and rear yards, residents in single- and two-family buildings can
18 Recommendations Design 19
Recommendations
→ Upgrade and Insulate Building Envelopes
Increasing insulation values and reducing leakage can dramatically reduce tempera-
ture variation within a home. Insulation strategies should encompass the roof, floors,
walls, ceilings, and windows. In addition to insulating exterior walls, double-pane
or triple-pane windows with high-performance glass or low-E coatings reduce heat
exposure. These coatings are most effective on the east, south, and west facades.22
The goal is to reduce the amount of radiation that passes through the window and
the amount of conduction through the materials.
→ Allow Variance for Interior Insulation

Envelope upgrades will differ depending on the relationship with the structural wall
and the property’s lot line. Ideally, a building’s cladding would be removed and the
insulation and air barrier would be applied continuously to the exterior of the build-
ing. However, if the exterior wall coincides with the lot line and there is no room for
additional material, the building will have to be insulated from the interior. In these
scenarios, building owners may be reluctant to bear the loss of square footage; the
City could compensate for this by allowing an obstruction or giving a Floor Area
Ratio (FAR) bonus.
Multifamily buildings in Fordham Heights. (Forefront Fellows)
→ Ensure Upgrades Provide Healthy Environments
Additional design criteria can ensure retrofits provide healthy environments for
2 Retrofit Building Envelopes

building residents by minimizing the threat of mold and ensuring air flow. First,
increasing the thermal performance of exterior walls must include the slab edges
to avoid a thermal bridge. If slab edges are left out of the upgrade, the potential for
Most existing multi-family buildings lack a continuously insu- mold growth increases, posing serious health risks. Second, providing ventilation
and air movement is necessary, either through trickle vents in the windows, which
lated and airtight thermal barrier, making these buildings
provide air passively, or through energy recovery ventilators, which provide active
expensive to cool with air-conditioning during the summer.20 ventilation. Ceiling fans can also provide additional air movement and assist in low-
Improving building envelope efficiency lowers the energy ering air-conditioning needs.23
requirements for cooling indoor living space, which both
Precedents
reduces the cost of air-conditioning and decreases green-
In the Greater Toronto Area, the Tower Renewal Partnership aims to retrofit postwar
house gas emissions generated by mechanical cooling. A residential towers to achieve greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions, improved livability,
better building envelope also ensures more efficient passive and better use of green space.24
cooling and thermal comfort in the event of a blackout, which The innovative Energiesprong model for building envelope retrofits originated in the
can be triggered by a heat wave and make air-conditioning Netherlands and subsequently spread to other parts of the world.25 New York State
Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) is working to adapt the
unavailable.21 model to multi-family buildings in New York through RetrofitNY.26
Case Study Ken Soble Tower Transformation
The Ken Soble Tower Transformation project is a rare example of a

50-year-old affordable housing building undergoing a deep energy ret-
rofit to the Passive House Institute’s EnerPHit standard. The project
aimed to reframe the building as an asset rather than a liability,
modernize senior housing units, increase the number of accessible
units, achieve passive survivability, and drastically reduce green-
house gas emissions. To improve insulation, R38 overcladding was added
to the building, enabling it to stay warm for up to two days in the
winter and cool for up to four days in the summer in the event of
power failure. This is substantially longer than typical buildings,
which stay warm for two hours in winter and cool for a half day in
summer during power failure. The existing balconies were also retrofit-
ted to increase thermal breaks. When assessing thermal comfort during
the design process, the team considered 2050 temperature projections
to ensure that thermal comfort standards could be met throughout the
lifespan of the project.27, 28
Location: Hamilton, Ontario, CA
Building SF: 80,000 sf
Program: Multi-family residential; 146 affordable senior housing units

Exterior shading. (Partner & Partners)
Year Completed: 2020
Owner: CityHousing Hamilton
3 Install Exterior Shading

Architect: ERA Architects
Mechanical Engineer: Reinbold Engineering Group
Building Envelope and Structural Engineers: Entuitive Corporation
Passive House Consultant: JMV Consulting Direct sunlight increases thermal heat gain indoors and ele-
Funding: Public vates outdoor temperatures, which also affects indoor tempera-
tures. Building orientation and the location of windows deter-
mine how much direct sunlight enters a building; east, south,
and west facades typically have the highest exposure to direct
sunlight. Exterior shading is one of the most effective strate-
gies to lower indoor temperatures by blocking solar exposure
and heat gain. NYCHA buildings, which generally lack external
shading, could particularly benefit from this strategy.
Recommendations
→ Adapt Shading to Suit Facade Requirements
Exterior solar control devices should be suited to the conditions of different facades.
For south-facing facades, exterior solar control devices such as awnings, window
(ERA Architects)
shutters, or sunshades/louvers will be more effective at limiting solar heat gain than Case Study Glasswood Passive House Retrofit
those on the interior, since they stop solar radiation before it enters the building’s
interior. East and west facades can benefit from adjustable vertical sunshades, due The Glasswood Passive House is the first commercial Passive House ret-
to the path of the sun in the morning and evening. Additional strategies to increase rofit in the United States. In conjunction with structural upgrades
shading and reduce heat exposure include porches and verandas, calculated roof and recladding to meet current energy code, the developers employed
additional retrofit tactics to improve thermal efficiency, cut down on
overhangs that only block the summer sun, and facade variation strategies such as
building systems cost, optimize tenant comfort, and achieve Passive
overhang of top stories or balconies.29
House certification. The main strategies were to maintain the archi-
tectural integrity of the building while creating air-tight spaces
→ Update Building Code to Enable Optimal Exterior Shading
between areas that produce heat and areas that do not; seal all
Local Law 28/2012 allows shading structures to project beyond the property line masonry and rough openings to ensure envelope efficiency; and utilize
up to 30 inches. In order to maximize the opportunity for exterior shading, the City simple low-use mechanical systems.
should study optimal height and projection from building for multi-family buildings
for heat reduction. Although this case study is a retrofit of a wood-frame commercial
building, the low-rise historic typology is a relevant comparison for
→ Deploy Movable or Permanent Shading on NYCHA Campuses mid- to low-rise pre-war multi-family buildings, of which there are
The existing designs of NYCHA buildings and campuses are favorable for imple- many in heat-vulnerable areas in New York City, such as in Central
Harlem. In addition, while the envelope retrofit may not be adaptable
menting shading strategies. The City should assess the location of shading devices
to masonry construction in New York, the window and rough opening tac-
at NYCHA buildings that will provide maximum shading impact on the building sur-
tics could be adopted.30,31
faces and apartment windows. Several design strategies are possible:
• Install permanent shading devices such as roof overhangs or canopies in the Location: Portland, Oregon
setbacks of NYCHA buildings. Large shading devices on the south facade at Size: 1,4000 sf
intermittent levels through the height of the building will avoid the need for Program: Mixed-use; offices above a commercial grade kitchen
individual window shading devices. Year Completed: 2014
• Install movable shading devices that can be deployed during summers and Architect: Scott | Edwards Architecture
rolled back during storms and the winter.
Builder: Hammer & Hand
• Erect mobile shaded seating areas in the park surrounding NYCHA build-
Construction Type: Wood Frame
ings. These temporary tents or autonomous canopies will ensure continued
usage of the green spaces during the hottest months and provide gathering
areas for residents to seek heat relief.
Glasswood
Passive House
Retrofit
to an annual savings of $0.23 per square foot of the roof’s

surface.32
Both cool and green roofs provide benefits of lower surface
and air temperatures, and decreased energy demand. How-
ever, green roofs offer added benefits such as reducing and
filtering stormwater runoff; absorbing pollutants and carbon
dioxide; providing natural habitat; and serving as recreational
green space. Green roofs involve greater financial investment
than cool roofs initially, but are preferred when lifecycle costs,
public benefits, and broader environmental impacts are of
interest.33
Recommendations
→ Expand Installation of Green Roofs on Existing Buildings
Existing buildings should consider the installation of green roofs. The 2019 Climate
Mobilization Act requires all new buildings to have green roofs, solar panels, or a
A green roof was installed on the Mother Clara Hall Bus Depot during a 2014 redesign. (Forefront Fellows)
combination of the two.34 However, it does not address existing buildings. While
there are approximately one million buildings in New York City, in 2016, there were
only 736 green roofs—the vast majority of which are not in high heat vulnerable
4 Scale Up Green Roofs for Existing neighborhoods.35 Expanding the use of green roofs in existing buildings can expand
the impact of green roof regulations for new buildings.
Buildings → Encourage Equitable Distribution of Green Roofs

There is an unequal distribution of green roofs across the city, with most concen-
Dark colored roofs absorb heat from sunlight, which is then trated in midtown and downtown Manhattan. Few are located in the outer borough
slowly emitted long after the sun has set. Waste heat generated neighborhoods that are most heat vulnerable, or in priority areas for stormwater cap-
by energy usage also radiates out of building roofs. Together, ture.36 An updated study should be done to show the current distribution of green
roofs and reflective roof areas in New York City and identify areas lacking green
these two phenomena contribute to the UHI effect and roof coverage. The Green Roofs Program, which offers tax abatements to incentiv-
increased thermal pressure on buildings. Green roofs, which ize installing green roofs, could leverage this data to increase the distribution of
use vegetation to increase rooftop insulation, combat the UHI green roofs throughout the city. Legislation passed in 2019 allows the City to offer a
higher abatement ($15 per square foot, compared to $5.23 per square foot) for green
effect and lower rooftop temperatures. Green roofs can lower
roofs in sewage overflow areas and areas with limited green space.37
rooftop temperatures by 30–40°F and reduce ambient tempera-
tures by up to 5°F. They have a longer lifespan than conven-
tional roofing materials. Green roofs also have energy-saving
benefits: they can reduce building energy use by 0.7%, leading
Multi-family building in Fordham Heights. (Forefront Fellows) Cool roofs atop the
Queensbridge Houses
in Dutch Kills.
(Google Maps)
Local Context: Fordham Heights 5 Expand Cool Roofs and Facades

Based on aerial imagery, the major-
ity of multi-family residential or
for Existing Buildings
mixed-use buildings appear to have
lighter-colored, high-albedo roofing.
As an alternative to green roofs, cool roofs reduce solar heat
However, in the vicinity of the two gain at lower cost, while still achieving energy savings. Cool
reported heat wave hot spots, much of
roofs can reduce buildings’ air-conditioning costs by 10–30%
the rooftop surfaces, particularly on
large-footprint institutions, indus- on hot summer days.38 The City’s Cool Roofs program, launched
trial buildings, and residential in 2009, is a partnership among the Mayor’s Office of Sustain-
buildings, are low-albedo. At Jerome
Avenue and W. 177th Street, a large
ability (MOS), the Mayor’s Office of Resiliency (MOR) and the
school with a dark roof sits on a Department of Small Business Services (SBS) to cover more
multi-acre site that is predominantly
than one million square feet of rooftops each year with a solar
dark asphalt and with minimal vegeta-
tion. The school is adjacent to the reflective coating to increase rooftop reflectivity. The program
industrial and mechanic uses and dark had covered more than 9.2 million square feet of rooftops as of
asphalt roof surfacing along Jerome
Avenue.
2018.39 Continuing to invest in cool roofs for existing buildings
and piloting new technologies to achieve better effects would strategy could be especially effective in NYCHA buildings given the lack of central
air-conditioning. Recent technological advances have yielded a simple, inexpensive,
expand the impact of the existing program.
and scalable polymer that is easy to paint or spray.46 The paint is not commercially
In addition to cool roofs, cool walls are an effective strategy available yet, but NYCHA could be a strategic partner in enabling the mass-produc-
tion of the paint. Initial estimates suggest the paint is low to medium cost. NYCHA
for reducing UHI effect because there is substantially more should test the new polymers on buildings that are in high heat-vulnerable neigh-
wall area than roof area in city buildings. Cool walls can reduce borhoods and monitor and verify the performance.
urban canyon air temperature and achieve energy savings
Precedents
equal to or greater than that of cool roofs.40, 41 A variety of strat-
In Los Angeles, building codes and landscape ordinances promote low-albedo
egies exist to achieve cool roofs and walls. surfaces. For example, Los Angeles Building Code’s Cool Roof Ordinance 182849
requires that roofing materials have a minimum reflectance and Cool Roof Rating
Recommendations
Council (CRRC) material.47 Los Angeles Landscape Ordinance 170,978 sets an
→ Deploy High-Albedo Materials for Roofs and Walls albedo performance requirement that adjusts based on landscape.48
The use of high-reflectance paint (i.e. cool roof paint), high-reflective ceramic tiles,
and similar high-albedo materials will reduce building solar heat gain.42, 43 The mate-
rials can be applied to particular areas of the facade to reduce solar heat gain. This
strategy makes use of low-cost, easily deployable strategies for increasing the solar
reflectivity and thus reducing the solar heat gain and thermal energy storage of the
buildings. It should be noted that increasing the reflectivity has the potential to
increase visual glare; proper studies should be performed to determine advantages
and disadvantages of proposed materials.
→ Introduce Code Requirements for Cool Walls

Despite research demonstrating the effectiveness of cool walls, there is currently
no code requirement for cool walls in New York City, as there are for cool roofs. The
City could include cool wall measures in local municipal building codes. In addition,
ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2016, which currently recognizes cool walls in climate zone
0 (Section 5.5.3.2), should be expanded to other climate zones based on current and
future climate projections.44
→ Refresh NYCHA Facades and Engage Residents with Cool Walls

On NYCHA campuses, resident associations could be given a palette of high-re-
flectance paint colors that meet the required Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) levels
to choose from. Resident-driven implementation of cool walls could galvanize fur-
ther community engagement efforts around heat resiliency. Cool walls also provide
opportunities for art murals and a fresh look for NYCHA housing.
→ Pilot Passive Daytime Radiative Cooling Paint on NYCHA Buildings

Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) paint serves the dual purpose of reflect-
ing the sun and heat back into space and mitigating UHI effects. PDRC results in net
cooling on indoor space, offering a promising alternative to electrical cooling.45 The
compared to cool walls, planting vegetation also avoids

reflectivity problems caused by light-colored facade
materials and paint.
Recommendations
→ Design Green Facades Suited to Facade Type and Climate
Green facades cool building interiors by forming a thermally insulative layer that
prevents heat from entering the interior of the building. Evapotranspiration from the
plants also promotes the cooling of the street below. Research suggests that plants
with dense foliage are most effective at reducing facade temperature and heat flux
through the facade.50 Designing green facades in New York City should take into
consideration facade types and local climate:
• Self-bonding vine plants need minimal scaffolding to grow along the facade
of a building.
• Deciduous vines would allow for cooling of the facade in the summer and
warming in the winter when the leaves have fallen.
The existing facade condition should be assessed to seal any cracks or gaps to
Vines cool the facade of this building in Manhattan. (Spencer Means, CC BY-SA 2.0)
prevent plants from growing into these cracks. Green facades should be maintained
by removing debris from the gutters, pruning the leaves, and preventing vines from
twisting along any downspouts.51
6 Introduce Green Facades → Amend DOT Guidelines to Allow Green Facades

The Department of Transportation (DOT) could amend its planting guidelines to
Facade materials often have high thermal conductance, allow planting of ivy and other small plants, as long as they are not in the direct
facilitating the transfer of heat from the exterior to pedestrian path, without going through an arduous revocable consent process.
the interior of the building. While facade retrofits can Precedent
reduce this heat transfer, the process is expensive The Bosco Verticale (“Vertical Forest”) towers, a pair of residential towers in Milan,
and logistically difficult. Green facades offer a lower- Italy, each house 900 trees, 5,000 shrubs, and 11,000 floral plants on terraces
cost alternative that still achieves improvements to lining the building facade. The 20,000 trees and plants in the buildings will convert
approximately 44,000 pounds of carbon each year. This equals, in amount of trees,
thermal insulation, while also reducing air and noise an area of two acres of forest. Greenery includes evergreen species, deciduous
pollution and promoting health benefits. Growing specimens include beeches, yellow acacias, oaks, maples, ash trees, ferns and ivy.52
“vertical vegetation” along a facade can reduce surface

temperature by as much as 15°C. Humidity levels in
front of and behind facades have been shown to be
7% higher in summer, creating a cooling effect.49 As
investments in green infrastructure and expand tree plantings

in high-need areas.
Recommendations
→ Include Green Infrastructure in Routine Streetscape Upgrades
The City should incorporate green infrastructure improvements into routine street
right-of-way upgrades and capital improvement projects to ensure continued invest-
ment in heat-mitigating strategies in the public realm. Routine upgrades could
include implementing rain gardens and enhancing green and open spaces. The City
could require a certain percentage of reconstructed or new hardscape area to be
permeable paving. The City could also promote cross-agency prioritization of green
infrastructure as part of larger capital project initiatives.
→ Update DOT Tree Planting Standards

To conserve and expand the existing urban tree stock, the City could update DOT
Tree Planting Standards to promote adequate soil quantity and architecture and
consider innovative soil technologies like structural soil cells. DOT could also
consider requiring roadway or streetscape reconstructions to include structural soil
cells at tree locations.
Industrial block in Port Morris lacking green infrastructure. (Forefront Fellows)
→ Expand Street Tree Planting to Include Areas Surrounding NYCHA Campuses

The current street tree planting program exempts zoning Use Group 17-18 (indus-
7 Increase Shade and Green trial uses). This results in fewer trees surrounding NYCHA campuses, as many cam-
puses are located adjacent to wider highways, truck access routes, and/or industrial
Infrastructure in the Public Realm areas. Furthermore, existing city-wide programs that support street tree planting
only apply to residential and new development areas and often involve complicated
approval processes across multiple City offices. The City should expand tree plant-
Hardscape-driven planning, prioritization of gray infrastruc- ing by ending the exemption for Use Group 17-18 and streamlining approval pro-
ture, inconsistent urban tree canopy, and lack of ongoing green cesses between DOT and other relevant agencies.
maintenance have resulted in an urban environment lacking in
vegetation and green space. The public realm makes up approx-
imately 30% of the impervious cover in New York, resulting in
a major impact on UHI effect.53 Increased prevalence of trees
in the public realm promotes shade and evapotranspiration.
Shading can reduce the maximum surface temperature of the
roofs and walls of buildings by 20–45°F.54 New York City has
already adopted a number of measures to improve and promote
street tree plantings. Further efforts can encourage routine
Local Context: Central Harlem
Central Harlem varies greatly in terms

of green space. While side streets are
often lush with mature trees, major
avenues have relatively little vege-
tation. Malcolm X Blvd, for example,
has almost no tree canopy on the east
side of the street, resulting in much
hotter evening temperatures. This is
exacerbated by a ridge to the west of
the neighborhood, which significantly
blocks wind. In general, the neigh-
borhood is characterized by low levels
of permeability; most of the sidewalks
on major streets have no planters or
bioswales. The exception to this are
the medians of Malcolm X Boulevard
and Adam Clayton Powell Jr Boulevard,
which are covered with planters and
trees.
A local resident travels across a sunny intersection in Dutch Kills. (Forefront Fellows)
Ample shade on a side street in Central Harlem.
(Forefront Fellows)
8 Strategically Augment Shade

Infrastructure
There is a lack of permanent shade structures and plants in
areas of the city that need it the most. Even when trees are
placed, they take several years to mature and provide signifi-
cant relief from heat. Moreover, permanent planting and shade
structures are not advised in some locations because of emer-
gency vehicle routes, utilities locations, and/or clearances.55
For those areas, a temporary solution would be ideal during
summer months and extreme heat periods to provide refuge.
The challenges of insufficient shade infrastructure are ampli-
fied around NYCHA campuses, which are often located along
high-use transit corridors with higher surface temperatures
due to the presence of asphalt and concrete and waste heat

generated by vehicles and commercial activity. These multi-
lane thoroughfares with limited or no tree coverage struggle
to provide shade infrastructure to combat the waste heat. Fur-
thermore, vulnerable populations who rely on walking to nearby
grocery stores, community centers, or transit hubs are subject
1
to excessive heat. Creative programming strategies could aug-
ment shade infrastructure in the most heat-vulnerable areas.
Recommendations 3
→ Leverage Cultural Programs to Create Shade Infrastructure 2
The City should encourage and implement programs to create temporary shade-pro-
ducing artwork and pop-up structures in public spaces. Temporary shade solutions
4
can also house attractive public arts and collaborative programs. Public and orga- 7
nizational art programs such as Percent for Art, the Metropolitan Transit Author-
ity (MTA) Art and Design program, DOT and Parks Department arts programs, the 6
5
Public Art Fund, and the DOT Plaza Program can be engaged to create public art-
works that have shade components. Art programs at schools and senior centers 8
could be encouraged to create temporary shade structures on their campuses. In
addition, various pop-up and mobile organizations that already provide temporary
shade structures should be encouraged to host events in neighborhoods that lack #1-8: potential green corridor sites surrounding Red Hook Houses. (Partner & Partners)
shade.
→ Transform Transit Corridors around NYCHA Campuses into Cool Corridors Local Context: Dutch Kills
Investing in green corridors around NYCHA campuses mitigates larger UHI effects,
The neighborhood character of northern
improves walkability between campuses and throughout the greater urban context,
and eastern Dutch Kills, surrounding
and promotes residents’ well-being. While NYCHA campuses are lush with mature the Queensbridge Houses, is largely
trees, the pedestrian connections between the NYCHA community and the immedi- defined by industrial, manufacturing,
ate urban context often lack tree plantings to provide shade and cooling. To address and mixed-use areas. Shade coverage
this, the City should develop financing incentives to encourage adjacent commer- throughout the largely industrial and
cial landowners to plan for street-side improvements including street trees, rain manufacturing sections is extremely
gardens, and longer/larger planting strips. The responsible City jurisdiction could sparse. Many blocks do not have a
fund the greening of these corridors since these primarily exist within the public single tree and are predominantly
right-of-ways. paved areas or glass and metal struc-
tures that emit heat.
Additionally, as the City increases bicycle corridors to improve cyclist safety, the
cool corridors initiative could be utilized to provide green buffers between cyclists
and vehicles.
This side of the major intersection at 37th Avenue and
21st Street lacks shade, though it is directly opposite
a small grove of oak trees. (Forefront Fellows)
Poli
cy
As the City targets policy efforts on reducing carbon
emissions, complementary policy changes can mitigate
the effects of climate change that New York is already
experiencing. This chapter includes recommendations to
encourage heat-resilient building design, address the UHI
effect, and serve vulnerable populations during extreme
heat events. Through strategic policymaking, the City
can build a more resilient built environment in the face of
rising temperatures and better communicate the risks of
extreme heat.
40 Recommendations Recommendations
Policy 41
Policy
The City’s Heat Vulnerability Index maps risks of
extreme heat at a neighborhood level, demonstrating
inequitable impacts. (NYC Deptartment of Health and
Mental Hygiene)
1. Establish Neighborhood Heat Vulnerability 43

Designations
2. Create a Heat Wave Risk Registry 45
3. Enhance Emergency Communications During Heat Waves 47
4. Improve Transit Accessibility During Heat 49
Emergencies
5. Establish Indoor Building Temperature Reporting 51
and Maximum Limits
6. Enable Energy-Efficient Retrofits for Smaller 53
Multi-Family Buildings
7. Cap Allowable Building Heat Rejection 55
8. Establish Building Code for the Urban Heat Island 57
9. Specify Shade Requirements in Zoning Ordinances 59
1 Establish Neighborhood Heat

Vulnerability Designations
Definitions of climate vulnerability draw on satellite images
and datasets that can be outdated, misrepresent actual ground
temperature, and overlook socioeconomic factors. Creating
clear neighborhood-level designations for heat vulnerability
offers the opportunity to develop more localized analysis, and
would better communicate risks to residents, policymakers,
and other leaders.
Recommendations
→ Establish Neighborhood-Scale HVI Designations
The City should work to refine the definition of heat vulnerable communities on
more localized and human-scale indicators to properly drive policy and allocation
of resources. The City can leverage the existing Heat Vulnerability Index (HVI) to
42 Recommendations Policy 43
establish clearer neighborhood-scale designations. These designations could take

into account factors already included in the HVI as well as additional criteria:
• Ground- and building-reported temperature data in local neighborhoods,

rather than at Central Park or airports, where data is currently recorded.
• Detailed analysis of the built environment in highly heat-vulnerable neigh-
borhoods (i.e. building typologies, materials, stock, and density).
• Analysis of the local population’s indicators of vulnerability (i.e. income
level, race, and social cohesion).
→ Explore Land Use Guidance for HVI Designations

Establishing HVI designations for neighborhoods that are highly vulnerable to heat
could function similarly to the way the Waterfront Revitalization Program (WRP)
uses the Coastal Zones to require applicants that are pursuing a land use action to
comply with the WRP.56 The HVI designation could be used, for example, to require
projects that are in the process of conducting an environmental review to study the
potential development impacts to the micro-climate and ways the project can miti-
gate the existing UHI effect.
Local Context: Fordham Heights

Shaded parking lot at NYCHA Ravenswood Houses in Dutch Kills. (Forefront Fellows)
While the broader neighborhood of

Fordham Heights is circled by major
destination parks and green spaces,
industrial and automotive uses are 2 Create a Heat Wave Risk Registry
clustered along Jerome Avenue under
the elevated subway tracks. The cor- Extreme heat events disproportionately affect socially isolated
ridor is a major economic center for
populations,57 which presents a challenge to City and health
the community, yet this clustering of
land uses creates an unsafe work envi- officials in identifying and providing relief to people in need.
ronment with regard to thermal comfort MOR’s Be a Buddy Program establishes neighborhood-based
and air quality. Asphalt and other
building materials trap heat, idling
networks to safeguard communities during climate emergen-
vehicles release exhaust, the elevated cies. The Hunts Point-Longwood Be a Buddy program, cur-
subway contributes to particulate
rently in pilot, aims to connect volunteers with at-risk individ-
matter and noise pollution, and there
is minimal relief from solar exposure uals to conduct check-ins during emergencies.58 Expanding on
through tree canopy or other shade this model, a regularly-maintained citywide risk registry could
structures.
Auto shops along Jerome Avenue in Fordham Heights. help ensure that at-risk individuals receive necessary support
(George Piazza)
during heat waves.
Recommendations
→ Establish Voluntary Heat Wave Risk Registry
The City could partner with key medical and emergency personnel to create a Heat
Wave Risk Registry that provides targeted oversight and emergency response to
vulnerable individuals, such as seniors and homebound or chronically ill individu-
als. People could voluntarily identify themselves as high-risk, doctors could register
their patients, and social workers could register their clients.
→ Use Risk Registry for Targeted Outreach during Heat Waves

During a heat emergency, those listed on this registry could receive check-in phone
calls, advice about cooling options, and a visit from an emergency medical profes-
sional, if necessary. This service could be initially deployed by the Department for
the Aging (DFTA) as part of the social services offered in their senior centers and in
Naturally Occurring Retirement Communities (NORCs).
Precedents
The Paris CHALEX Directory was created in 2004 in response to the 2003 heat
wave. Once a heat wave emergency is declared, Paris City Hall activates a protocol
with emergency personnel and resources. Individuals who voluntarily registered in
the CHALEX directory receive home visits and are brought to cool rooms, and police
patrols and emergency workers are deployed to care for individuals in need.59
3 Enhance Emergency
Communications During Heat
Waves
During a heat wave, NYC Emergency Management (NYCEM)
coordinates public communications through press releases,
heat safety brochures, and email and text alerts to those who
have opted in to messaging. Nonetheless, many people do
not take action to minimize their vulnerability to extreme heat
because they do not perceive themselves to be vulnerable or
do not consider heat waves in general to be a life threaten-
ing event.60 Further enhancing emergency alerts during heat
waves will encourage greater awareness of risks and protective
behaviors.
Recommendations
→ Name Heat Wave Events
When agencies provide names to hurricane and fire events, a clear public message
is sent that there is an impending emergency that requires action in order to stay
safe.61 The Bureau of Environmental Surveillance & Policy at DOHMH could estab-
lish a protocol for naming heat wave events predicted to hit New York City.62 If pre-
dicted conditions meet the criteria, the named heat wave would be communicated
to weather agencies as well as to community leaders in neighborhoods with high
heat vulnerability. While heat waves are experienced at a regional level, initiatives
led at the city level would be able to better leverage localized data that reflects the
increased threat caused by the UHI effect.
F subway station in Dutch Kills
→ Manage Heat Wave Communications as Emergency Alerts near Queensbridge Houses.
(Forefront Fellows)
The City should manage communications about extreme heat events like other
extreme weather and public health emergencies. During other cases of extreme
weather, emergency alerts are frequently sent to all mobile users from the National
Weather Service. Mobile messaging during heat waves could include information
about avoiding areas that are likely hotspots as well as other behavioral recommen-
dations to stay safe before, during, and after the heat wave.
→ Leverage Existing Communications Infrastructure During Heat Waves

Emergency heat alerts, safety information, and directions to community resources
should be displayed through City-owned properties like LinkNYC, bus shelters, and
subways. Information should be standardized across all these platforms about the
risks of and resources to survive extreme heat events. Map of cooling centers across the city in 2019
(Partner & Partners, data courtesy of Mayor’s Office of Resiliency)
4 Improve Transit Accessibility

During Heat Emergencies
Low-income seniors are at heightened risk of illness and death
during extreme heat events. Furthermore, many seniors live
beyond a quarter-mile from vital cooling centers, where they
can find relief from extreme heat.63 When seniors must endure
a heat wave inside their home or apartments, they are likely to
incur increased financial costs for operating air conditioners;
some may lack air-conditioning; and others will remain socially
isolated inside their home. As a result, transit access is vital to

seniors during heat emergencies.
Recommendations
→ Increase and Subsidize Transit Service During Heat Waves
The MTA could increase the access, availability, and frequency of Access-a-Ride
and other door-to-door transit services when temperatures are above 80°F. They
could also waive bus fares for seniors already using a Reduced-Fare MetroCard.
The City should explore working with DFTA to create a policy to subsidize taxis and
car share services to cooling centers during and up to three days immediately after
extreme heat events, in order to access reliable cooling systems.64
Local Context:
Mott Haven/Port Morris
In the residential parts of Mott

Haven, higher density areas, mixed use
housing, and social infrastructure
encourage social interaction, which
can be important to building community Multi-family building in Fordham Heights. (George Piazza)
resiliency. However, there are rela-
tively few public buildings within the
5 Establish Indoor Building

study area. Among these, schools and
houses of worship are important commu-
nity assets that could also be adapted
to be cooling centers. Temperature Reporting and
Maximum Limits
While Local Law 86 mandates minimum temperatures, no max-
imum temperature has been set. And although Local Law 84
requires reporting of energy and water efficiency, there is no
requirement for reporting indoor building temperature. The lack
P.S. 65 Mother Hale Academy in Mott Haven. of reporting and set minimum interior temperature can result
(Forefront Fellows)
in dangerously hot interior temperatures. Moreover, the City’s
efforts to reduce carbon emissions could incentivize landlords
to cut down on energy use required for building cooling, result-
ing in unsafe interior building temperatures. Since the legal
framework for reporting, benchmarking, and setting standards
for livable interior conditions exists, these standards should be

expanded upon to address health and safety concerns related
to extreme heat.
Recommendations
→ Expand Local Law 84 to Require Benchmarking for Building Temperature
The City should consider expanding Local Law 84 Article 309, section 28-309 to
include benchmarking for building temperatures. Landlords or cooperatives of multi-
tenant buildings could be required to annually report data on temperatures of (a)
the roof, (b) the lobby, (c) egress corridors, and (d) occupied units during periods of
heat advisory. Landlords could be provided heat sensors from the City, similar to fire
alarms and CO2 detectors.
→ Expand Local Law 86 to Include a Maximum Indoor Temperature

To establish a maximum internal temperature, the City could expand Local Law 86
to require that buildings with centrally-supplied cooling maintain a temperature of
no more than 85°F whenever the outside temperature rises above 90°F, from May 31
through October 1. For buildings without centrally supplied cooling, the City could
explore requiring the temporary installation of dwelling-specific cooling units.65
Smaller multi-family buildings in Central Harlem. (Forefront Fellows)
Precedents
European countries including Czech Republic, Norway, Portugal and the United
Kingdom, among others, have established maximum summer indoor temperature
limits between 25–28°C (or 77–82°F).66 The European Commission-supported Ther-
6 Enable Energy-Efficient Retrofits
mCo research project evaluated techniques for low-energy cooling that maintains
thermal comfort.67
for Smaller Multi-Family Buildings
New York City’s multi-family housing stock ranges from two-
and three-family homes to high-rise towers. Larger buildings
are required to undergo energy efficiency audits, will soon be
required to meet GHG emissions limits, and enjoy the advan-
tage of economies of scale when undergoing retrofits. But in
smaller multi-family buildings, there is little to no post-occu-
pancy analysis to see whether heating and cooling measures
are effective at the unit-scale. Older mid-rise multi-family
buildings are especially prone to having inefficient envelopes,
or leaking heating and cooling into uninhabited common or ter-
tiary spaces. To enable smaller buildings to tackle retrofits, the
City should help building owners overcome challenges includ-

ing lack of knowledge and financial obstacles.68
Recommendations
→ Expand Local Law 87 to Require Energy Efficiency Audits for Smaller
Multi-Family Buildings
Local Law 87 requires energy audits every ten years for buildings of 50,000 square
feet or larger.69 Local Law 87 should be expanded to require that multi-family build-
ings under 50,000 square feet also audit the efficiency of dwelling envelopes
upon tenant turnover or every five years, whichever is sooner. This would facilitate
heat-resilient and energy efficiency retrofits for these buildings, enable landlords
and tenants to save on heating and cooling systems, and trigger code compliance in
dwellings where work would otherwise not occur.
→ Offer Recommended Tactics as a Low-Cost Alternative to Audits

In buildings where the cost of a full audit is prohibitive, the City should explore pro-
grams to provide landlords with low-cost recommendations that they could implement.
Small tactics like installing curtains and sealant strips or repairing windows could mit-
igate drafts in the winter and maintain cooling in the summer, resulting in safer tenant Multi-family buildings like this one in Fordham Heights often rely
conditions. Recommended tactics should also preserve or improve indoor air quality.70 heavily on window air-conditioning units for cooling. (George Piazza)
→ Create a Menu of Energy-Efficient Retrofits

The City could build on existing resources to create a standardized menu of
multi-family retrofit packages, which could drive down costs by creating economies
7 Cap Allowable Building Heat
of scale and streamlining a complicated process. Retrofit packages for summertime
cooling should include a range of upgrades based on cost per unit.
Rejection
Retrofit packages should also account for building construction class and the rela- In buildings where central air-conditioning is not available,
tionship of exterior walls to the property line, because those factors will affect what
type of materials and installation methods are most appropriate and whether tenants residents are required to install window units where possible.
may remain in place during renovations. A city-wide preliminary analysis is neces- However, window air conditioner units reject heat to the outside
sary to establish classes of similar buildings to base the packages on. The prevalent campus, increasing the outdoor temperature.74 An estimated 15%
building types within low- to mid-rise multi-family housing in neighborhoods with
the highest HVI should be prioritized when the City formulates these packages.
of heat in a heatwave is directly attributable to air-condition-
ing.75 Heat rejection from HVAC equipment may be a significant
Precedent
contributor to the UHI effect.76, 77 Addressing this challenge on
Pratt Center for Community Development’s Retrofit Standardization Initiative pro- NYCHA campuses, which are located in areas of high heat vul-
vides a method of analysis for grouping building typologies into similar classes and
for determining types of renovations suitable for different typologies.71, 72 nerability and where buildings are not centrally air-conditioned,
New York-based Community Preservation Corporation’s “Underwriting Efficiency”
would have substantial impact.
handbook includes sample retrofit strategies that fall within the scope of a simple
upgrade, a moderate renovation, or substantial improvements.73
Recommendations
→ Establish Threshold for Maximum Allowable Heat Rejection at Building Scale
Local Law 97 sets a precedent for buildings to limit their carbon emissions below
set thresholds or pay fines. While limiting total energy consumption indirectly con-
tributes to minimizing the UHI effect, the City should enact a new complementary
regulation to set thresholds for a maximum amount of allowable heat rejection at the
building-scale. Any building that exceeds the heat rejection cap could be fined or be
required to install retrofits to lower the heat rejection, such as improving ventilation
for heat release or installing heat recovery systems.78
→ Develop Methodology for Heat Threshold through NYCHA Pilot

The City should convene an advisory committee to develop a limit on heat rejection,
while maintaining thermal comfort. A first step to setting a heat rejection budget is
to establish a methodology for using sensors to measure heat rejected to the out-
doors from HVAC equipment.
Given the prevalence of window air conditioner units on NYCHA campuses, the
committee should focus on developing metrics for NYCHA buildings as a pilot,
which can then be expanded to other building types if successful. NYCHA could
partner with the New York chapter of ASHRAE to help define a methodology. Analy-
sis should be based on a representative data sample from NYCHA buildings, at least Singapore is known for its greenery. (John Willis, CC BY 2.0)
for dominant property types.
8 Establish Building Code for the

Urban Heat Island
Current Department of Buildings (DOB) building codes compre-
hensively address life safety and energy consumption. However,
there are no codes relating to the heat resilience of a building
and its lasting effect on the exterior urban environment. Many
different design factors enhance or mitigate UHI effect, but are
not widely established as best practices in today’s architecture
planning. The relationship of exterior facade material selection,
facade reflectance onto city streets, orientation of buildings, and
landscape design are not considered in current building codes
or zoning regulations. Some materials that can provide insula-
tion improving indoor thermal comfort can also have an adverse
impact to the external environment. Comprehensive building

code guidance could help designers balance indoor improve-
ments with effects on the external environment.
Recommendations
→ Incorporate Extreme Heat as Life Safety Issue in Building Code
The UHI effect and extreme heat should be considered as life safety issues and be
incorporated into building codes. Incorporating heat into the building codes would
require designers to model the urban environment in relation to their building and
account for the impact the building will have on broader heat resiliency.
The DOB should consider including the following codes:
• Require buildings to model their net effect increase in temperature on the surround-
ing environment due to selection of materials and the geometry of the building.
• Establish codes and limits for increased temperatures at the pedestrian level
as a result of the materials, orientation, and urban landscape chosen for a
particular project.
• Establish requirements to understand rates of temperature rise within a build-
ing when the active cooling systems are turned off to learn how long the build-
This building in Mott Haven provides extensive shading in its entryway. (Forefront Fellows)
ing can be occupied before becoming inhabitable in case of a power outage.
Precedents
ENVI-met is a German company that has the capacity to model exterior environ- 9 Specify Shade Requirements in
ments and provide recommendations for urban enhancements, building construc-
tion, and orientation.79 Zoning Ordinances
Shade is not distributed equitably around the city and there
Case Study: Singapore “City in a Garden”
are currently no guidelines or requirements to quantify shade
Singapore is referred to as the “City in a Garden” for its tree- in public spaces, non-residential buildings, and other public
lined streets and greening efforts since the 1970s. Singapore has the properties. Even though green space requirements are part of
second largest amount of green space of cities across the globe, and
a tree canopy that covers close to 50% of the city. Urban planners the non-residential zoning code and public space requirements
and designers have drawn the landscape into every detail in order to and guidelines, the amount of shade is not specified. Without
“bring in” nature to a variety of building developments. Vertical
rules and incentives, there is less impetus for non-residential
gardens are abundant with connected green roofs and verdant transit
corridors which collectively promote holistic cooling while providing buildings to place trees and structures that provide shade.
shade to pedestrians. Due to its proximity to the equator, heat mit-
igation is an important factor for the urban fabric.80 The collective Recommendations
UHI effect has been reduced by 2–3°C.81 Increasingly, as areas rely less → Introduce Shade Requirements in Zoning Ordinances
on energy heavy air conditioner units, the use of landscape is also
The City should implement outdoor shade requirements for public spaces, new
improving overall well-being with economic co-benefits.
non-residential developments, and retrofits of all public buildings. A shade require-

Local Context:
ment in percentage or square footage is a quantifiable lens to require non-residen-
Mott Haven/Port Morris
tial and public buildings to include shade, either through trees or shade structures,
in their outdoor spaces. In general, apartment buildings are
Shade requirements for non-residential buildings can be implemented under Article located on wider, more heavily traf-
III: Commercial District Regulations, Chapter 7 - Special Regulations: Commer- ficked streets, while single-family
cial District Special Urban Design Regulations under the NYC Zoning Ordinance. attached homes populate narrower and
The regulations cover sidewalks, urban plazas, and Privately Owned Public Space quieter streets. The strong east-west
(POPS). Currently, there are no sidewalk, open space, and shade requirements for orientation of the major streets pro-
vides a great amount of southern expo-
manufacturing areas. Implementing those requirements would mitigate heat impacts
sure, and apartment buildings are very
in areas that often lack green space.
often without adequate shade. Because
they are located on wider streets but
Precedents
have still relatively low building
The Urban Forestry Program in Charlottesville, Virginia promotes the city’s urban profiles, the structures do not ade-
forest through strategies including a tree conservation ordinance, a tree inventory quately shade each other, particularly
dashboard, and regular urban canopy reports.82 during the summer months when the sun
is at its peak.
The City of Chicago’s 2008 Adding Green to Urban Design plan includes strategies
to improve the environmental performance of the City’s landscape requirement.83
→ Incorporate UHI Effects into CEQR Process

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) completed through the City Environmen-
tal Quality Review (CEQR) process do not currently investigate the effects of new
Wide streets and relatively low buildings prevent
development on UHI effect. EIAs may consider contamination of soil, air, and noise, buildings from shading each other on this block in
Mott Haven. (Forefront Fellows)
but do not address any adverse effects on prevailing winds, preserving open air cor-
ridors, building mass, increased pedestrian temperatures, or shading of surrounding
structures. The City should incorporate UHI effect considerations into EIAs.
Precedents
The City of Vienna has developed an Urban Heat Island Strategy, evaluating strat-
egies at various levels of implementation, including at the levels of urban master
planning and zoning changes.84
Also in Vienna, the City simulated the microclimate impacts of the master plan for
Nordbahnstraße-Innstraße, a former brownfield site, using ENVI-met software, to
improve the development’s impact on the UHI effect prior to construction.85
Fi na
n ce
Obtaining financing for energy-efficient retrofits,
greening strategies, and cooling infrastructure is a barrier
to improving heat resiliency in the most vulnerable
neighborhoods. The recommendations in this chapter
highlight opportunities for the City to channel existing
financing streams, expand others, and develop new
partnerships to direct funding where it is most needed. The
imperative to protect New Yorkers against extreme heat must
drive an ambitious, strategic effort to secure financing for
necessary initiatives.
Air-conditioning equipment at the Brownsville Library enables it to serve as a
cooling center. (Forefront Fellows)
62 Recommendations Recommendations
Finance 63
Finance
1. Expand PACE to Single-Family Homes 65
2. Leverage Creative Partnerships to Fund Cooling 68
Centers
3. Expand Programs to Lease Roofs to Solar Developers 70
4. Lease Open Spaces on NYCHA Campuses for Greening and 72
Cooling
5. Expand Financing Tools for NYCHA Comprehensive 74
Retrofits
6. Leverage Funds from the Health Sector 76
7. Direct Local Law 97 Funds towards Heat-Resilient 77
Design
Solar panel on the roof of a small building in Fordham Heights. (Forefront Fellows)
1 Expand PACE to Single-Family

Homes
Energy efficiency and other retrofits tend to be cost-prohibitive
to homeowners.86 As of 2020, New York City has made financ-
ing for energy saving and renewable energy projects available
to certain residential and commercial building owners through
the Property Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) program.87, 88 The
PACE model enables building owners to pay back the loan
through the building’s tax bill. However, this program is not cur-
rently available to single-family homeowners.
Recommendations
→ Enable Single- and Multi-Family Homeowners to Access PACE Financing
The City should work with the New York City Energy Efficiency Corporation
64 Recommendations Finance 65
(NYCEEC) and MOS to allow single- and multi-family homeowners to utilize PACE
financing to pay for energy efficiency or Passive House retrofits. These retrofits
would seal leaky building envelopes in homes, thus making them cooler in the
summer, warmer in the winter and more resilient to extreme temperature changes.
While the lack of Federal Housing Administration (FHA) insurance on mortgages
that carry PACE liens could make this program riskier, City agencies could work with
other financial bodies, banks, and policymakers to find alternative ways to allay that
risk.89 As PACE is tied to the property itself, there is little risk in losing payback even
if the homeowner sells the property. High performing homes have also been shown
to increase home value and lower bill costs, which makes it more attractive to remain
in a property.90
Case Study Historic Chicago Bungalow Retrofit
The Chicago Bungalow Association works with low- and moderate-in-

come homeowners who reside in Historic Chicago Bungalows to access
the Energy Savers program, which is run in partnership with the City
of Chicago, local utilities, and other local nonprofits.91 The Energy
Savers program uses funding from utilities and employs prescriptive
Chicago bungalows in the neighborhood of Hermosa. (Cragin Spring, CC BY 2.0)
measures for each home. Built between 1910–1940, Historic Chicago
Bungalows typically have 1.5 stories, brick faces with stone trim,
low pitched roofs with an overhang, a rectangular shape, many windows
and full basements.92 There are typically no air barriers between the
brick and plaster because it was so cheap to heat homes when they were
built. The homeowner in this project went through a complete retro-
fit process, which started with a building energy assessment and went
through an air sealing and insulation retrofit of the house.
Location: Chicago, IL
Size: 1,200 sf
Program: Single-family Residential
Year Completed: 2019
Energy Rating: Energy Star for Homes
Funding: Chicago Bungalow Association; Utility ratepayers fund
Costs: None to homeowner, but average costs are around $7,500 for a retrofit
(program is funded from fund ratepayers pay into)
Recommendations
→ Leverage Community Benefit Agreements to Fund Cooling Centers
Many heat-vulnerable neighborhoods suffer from underinvestment in social, green,
and shade infrastrastructure—including community space that could be used as
cooling centers. Many of these neighborhoods also face pressure from gentrification
and rising rents, which may cause concern for community residents who feel under-
served by the benefits of new development. The City could work with developers in
heat-vulnerable neighborhoods to utilize community benefit agreements (CBAs)
to provide funding to community centers, capital improvements, and public health
programs in neighborhood hospitals, libraries, or other sites functioning as cooling
centers during heat waves.96
→ Identify Creative Financing Tools for NYCHA Cooling Centers

Given the particular concentration of at-risk populations, such as low-income
seniors, on NYCHA campuses, investing in improvements in NYCHA cooling centers
can have an outsized effect on health outcomes.97 NYCHA could identify creative
financing tools to improve the quantity, reliability, and attractiveness of public cool-
ing centers through creative programming, partnerships, and philanthropic support.
The Jacob A. Riis Neighborhood Settlement, located in Queensbridge Houses, serves as a cooling center. Potential opportunities relevant to NYCHA campuses include:
(Forefront Fellows)
• Reframe what is considered a cooling center and how these spaces are inte-
grated into daily lives for the dual benefits of opening more funding streams
2 Leverage Creative Partnerships to and encouraging more people to attend cooling centers during a heat
event. For example, philanthropic support to fund capital investments could
Fund Cooling Centers improve reliability and redundancy of cooling centers.

• Partner with organizations accessible to immigrant groups and people with
different language needs. For example, provide funding for a local immigrant
Cooling centers provide crucial respite during periods of extreme services provider to have air-conditioning and extend hours during heat
heat. However, the program is limited to certain public buildings events.98
• Integrate the operation, maintenance, and programming of cooling centers
that opt in on a volunteer basis, such as libraries and senior cen- into existing workforce development programs for NYCHA residents.
ters. Existing cooling centers face challenges in ensuring reliabil-
ity, attracting the most at-risk populations during a heat event,
and being well-located enough to meet the level of need.93, 94 At
present, cooling centers are not available within a half-mile walk-
ing distance for all New Yorkers.95 NYCHA cooling centers, in par-
ticular, face underinvestment and long-needed capital improve-
ments. Creative strategies to fund cooling centers would enable
these assets to better serve all city residents.
sources of low-cost solar power. For example, NYCHA and the MTA might have land
and physical assets that are underutilized and can be creatively leveraged for both
heat mitigation strategies for residents and additional short- and long-term revenue
generation for the agency.
Precedent
NYCHA’s ACCESSolar program leases rooftops for solar panels to small businesses
and nonprofits that meet specific conditions, including employing NYCHA residents
and enrolling low-income customers. The rooftops made available through this pro-
gram typically have 40 kW or less of solar capacity per rooftop.99
→ Pilot Solar Louver and Facade Systems to Expand Capacity for Solar
Developments
Piloting solar technology in nonconventional building elements expands the reve-
nue and energy generating potential of this strategy. Louver systems over windows
are a low-tech solar heat gain mitigation strategy that could be added to NYCHA
buildings in strategic places, and solar louver systems provide the added benefit of
energy generation. Solar facade systems is another building element that could be
explored and added to buildings in strategic places. NYCHA could pilot an expan-
The Marcus Garvey Apartments, an affordable housing complex in Brownsville, house a solar microgrid sion of the current ACCESSolar program to include window louvers, other building
on their rooftops. (Forefront Fellows)
shade systems, and independent shade structures.
3 Expand Programs to Lease Roofs

to Solar Developers
Leveraging underutilized land and space for solar panels can
generate new, stable sources of funding to support heat resil-
iency efforts, while also advancing the City’s clean energy
agenda. NYCHA is already engaged in leasing its roofs for
solar development, and there are many precedents for utilizing
excess roof space for solar. Solar can be integrated into other
building elements as well.
Recommendations
→ Lease Underutilized Space to Solar Developers to Fund Shade Infrastructure
City and State agencies should explore the potential to lease rights to solar devel-
opers to support the construction of window louvers, shade structures, and roof
improvements on City and State buildings and increase New Yorkers’ access to
Recommendations
→ Pilot Leasing Open Space on NYCHA Campuses
The City and NYCHA could pilot a partnership for existing or new organizations to
lease large amounts of designated open spaces on NYCHA campuses. The program
could offer incentives to invest in creative greening and cooling projects while
ensuring that partner organizations are able to manage maintenance and safety. If
successful, the pilot could be expanded across the NYCHA system.
Precedents
Existing programs like Living Lots NYC,100 the Amboy Community Farm by Project
EATS at Marcus Garvey Apartments,101 and community gardens across the city102 are
already leveraging open space to augment community resources.
Local Context: Dutch Kills
Queensbridge Houses is the largest

development in the NYCHA portfolio
and also the largest single public
housing development in North America.
Inaccessible shaded green space at Queensbridge Houses. (Forefront Fellows) Queensbridge Houses opened in 1939
and is currently home to approximately
6,000 mostly black and Hispanic res-
4 Lease Open Spaces on NYCHA

idents with a median household income
of $15,843.130 The Queensbridge Houses
Campuses for Greening and

are very lush, with abundant large
old-growth trees and green spaces
providing cover in many areas between
Cooling the buildings. The trees and green
spaces provide significant tree canopy
and cooling benefits, and the area can
NYCHA campuses feature substantial open spaces between feel noticeably cooler on a hot day.
buildings that could be used for greening, cooling, and rec- Nonetheless, many of the open spaces
are fenced off and inaccessible for
reation. On many campuses these open spaces are currently
residents.
inaccessible, unnecessarily paved, or generally underutilized.
Maintaining and ensuring safety in these spaces is challeng-
ing, as is funding improvements. Developing a clear pathway Shaded recreational area at Queensbridge Houses.
(Forefront Fellows)
for creative greening and cooling partnerships could help fund
maintenance and programming, while still ensuring the space
is available for the community’s benefit.
Recommendations
→ Develop New Financing Tools to Fund Comprehensive Retrofits
NYCHA should continue to pursue new financing tools for comprehensive building
renovations and identify new opportunities to integrate sustainability and resiliency
financing into a broader toolkit. New opportunities to consider include:
• Use Local Law 97 fines from private buildings to finance additional NYCHA
capital improvements that reduce building emissions.
• Require private financing of generator buildings and cooling centers as part
of all public-private partnerships.
→ Expand Existing Incentives to Support Heat Resiliency

NYCHA could explore additional financing tools and incentives that promote heat
mitigation practices to integrate into NYCHA 2.0, Build to Preserve, Permanent
Affordability Commitment Together (PACT), and other existing programs. For exam-
ple, NYCHA could require any infill development on NYCHA campuses to have
design elements such as green facades and landscape that can absorb heat from
adjacent NYCHA property. Existing programs could also be evaluated to ensure they
advance heat resiliency. For example, infill development could be located strategi-
NYCHA Washington Houses in East Harlem. (Jim Henderson, CC 1.0)
cally on site to maximize wind flows and natural ventilation of full campus.
5 Expand Financing Tools for

NYCHA Comprehensive Retrofits
Many of the sustainability and resilience challenges that
NYCHA properties face stem from long-unmet capital repair
and renovation needs. Comprehensive retrofits, rather than
piecemeal improvements, are critical to mitigating short-term
and long-term risk of heat vulnerability and climate resilience.
Heat resiliency should also be incorporated into ongoing ini-
tiatives. Given that NYCHA campuses have large percentages
of residents who are vulnerable to extreme heat, the need to
develop financing tools and incentives to fund heat resiliency
retrofits and improvements is urgent.103, 104
Murals on the Jacob A. Riis Neighborhood Settlement in Dutch Kills. (Forefront Fellows)
7 Direct Local Law 97 Funds towards

Sixteen Oaks Grove, a small park in Dutch Kills, provides both cooling and health benefits.
Heat-Resilient Design
(Forefront Fellows)
Local Law 97 establishes fines for buildings over 25,000 square
feet that exceed GHG emissions limits set by the City. The current
6 Leverage Funds from the Health Sector penalties are $268 per metric carbon ton per year.106 The penalties
associated with Local Law 97 result in significant revenue for the
Investments to mitigate heat risks frequently have public health City of New York, and the funds are currently slated for the gen-
co-benefits. Urban green space has been shown to reduce mor- eral coffers. Ensuring these funds are equitably dispersed to resil-
tality, improve cardiovascular outcomes, and improve mental iency and sustainability projects is an important step to ensure
health, among other positive health effects.105 Yet to date, the the new legislation maximizes impact across the five boroughs.
health sector and adjacent industries have not made a concerted Recommendations
effort to invest in the built environment in order to improve heat → Invest a Portion of Local Law 97 Funds in Heat Resiliency
resiliency and associated public health indicators. The City could explore how to use a portion of the fines from Local Law 97 to provide
additional funding to improve thermal comfort in heat-vulnerable neighborhoods.
Recommendations At the building-scale, this funding could be invested in new shade technology.
→ Secure Financing from Health Industry to Invest in Heat Resiliency At the neighborhood-scale, the funding could support green, shade, and social
The City and community-based organizations could study the feasibility of relating infrastructure.
heat mitigation measures to health industry financing streams and philanthropic pro-
cesses. Greening strategies are a natural starting point for leveraging health financ-
ing, giving the robust existing literature documenting the co-benefits.
Co m
munit
ie n cy
y R si
l
e
As the frequency of heat waves continues to grow, the City
must enhance communications about the dangers of heat
waves and communities must be better able to respond to
establish areas for relief and refuge. This chapter offers
recommendations for developing more robust cooling
infrastructure in public spaces, engaging diverse community
members in heat resiliency efforts, and strengthening City
communications about heat waves. Through innovative
strategies like cool-down pop-ups and community design of
cooling centers, heat-vulnerable neighborhoods across New
York City can be better prepared for extreme heat.
78 Recommendations Community
Recommendations
Resiliency 79
Community Resiliency
1. Expand the Reach of Cooling Centers 81
2. Deploy Cool-Down Pop-Ups 84
3. Enable Community Design of Cooling Centers 86
4. Promote Neighborhood Resiliency through BIDs 88
5. Enhance Citywide Messaging to Convey Heat Wave Risks 90
6. Reach Vulnerable Groups with Strategic 92
Communications
Air-conditioning equipment at the Brownsville Library enables it to serve as a cooling center.

(Forefront Fellows)
1 Expand the Reach of Cooling

Centers
Cooling centers are designated spaces in senior centers, librar-
ies, and other public facilities where residents can find relief
from extreme heat. While the city has a vast network of cooling
centers, not all communities have options within easy walking
distance; 30.2% of seniors live more than a half-mile from a
cooling center.107 Many existing cooling centers target certain
populations—for example, cooling centers in senior centers are
most likely to attract seniors—thus limiting the extent of their
reach. By expanding the cooling center program to include
more informal public spaces and reach wider audiences within
the community, cooling centers could benefit many more New
Yorkers during heat waves.
80 Recommendations Community Resiliency 81
Recommendations DOROT, a nonprofit serving older adults, partners with other community organiza-
→ Incentivize Informal Cooling Centers tions to offer intergenerational classes and mentorship programming.110
To increase the availability of cooling centers while also diversifying users, the
City should partner with nonprofits and indoor public spaces to make informal Local Context: East Flatbush
cooling centers available at low or no cost to the City. Spaces that are not typically
open to the public can be incentivized with energy bill vouchers for each day that A supportive housing development serv-
they opt into the cooling center program to reduce the financial burden of cooling ing populations with mental health
needs and those aging out of foster
their space. The City could evaluate various existing spaces and strategies for this
care serves as a community resource
program:
in supporting heat resiliency. The
building has a pronounced awning with
• Spaces that are already familiar to many people and could serve as cooling
planting along the sidewalk, along
centers include POPS, religious institutions and places of worship, hospi-
with a widened sidewalk with permeable
tal lobbies, educational institutions, and nonprofit and community-based
pavers. The building has a community
organizations. garden in the back and houses a com-
• Spaces that are already public, such as POPS, could be encouraged to pro- munity kitchen that offers classes and
vide cooling and relief within the existing program structure. workshops.
• Existing entertainment venues with reliable cooling could encourage atten-
dance during a heat event. For example, a movie theater could offer senior
discount tickets during heat events.
The City could pilot this incentive program and measure the use of informal cooling
Entryway with ample shading. (Google Maps)
center space over one summer. The pilot can uncover “sweet spots” for an incentive
that encourages property owners or operators to opt into the cooling center program.
It may also reveal that many existing spaces already provide cooling and remain
open to the public, but lack the tools or messaging to advertise. User counts before,
during, and after heat waves would allow MOR to quantify the benefit.
→ Prioritize Intergenerational Cooling Center Programming

Community spaces that act as formal and informal cooling centers could develop
programming that encourages intergenerational relationships. During heat waves,
intergenerational programs could draw diverse members of the community to the
cooling center. In the longer term, such programming could also strengthen overall
community bonds and reduce social isolation, both important aspects to building
resilience in heat-vulnerable neighborhoods.
Precedents
Temple University’s Center for Intergenerational Learning has developed a toolkit for
intergenerational programming that helps community centers create programming
for users of all ages.108
The Weinberg Center for Balanced Living at the Manny Cantor Center on the Lower
East Side offers programs aimed at “young” seniors.109

WATER
Shaded parks like this one in Fordham Heights could host pop-up cool-down programming. (George Piazza) Cooling pop-ups being deployed (Partner & Partners)
2 Deploy Cool-Down Pop-Ups • Pop-up Pools: Small pop-up pools in the summer are successful and should
be deployed more often.111, 112 Spaces for pop-up pools are hard to find, but
NYCHA campus parking lots could be strategic sites to benefit the maximum
The need for relief from extreme heat in heat-vulnerable areas users. Such programs could also partner with “Summer Bluefish,” a program
may exceed what the City is able to offer through cooling cen- that teaches NYCHA children how to swim.113
• Cold Water Trucks: Like ice cream trucks, the City could provide cold water
ters. In addition to expanding existing cooling centers, creative trucks which can drive around vulnerable communities supplying cold drink-
cool-down resources could offer alternatives to serve different ing water, reusable water bottles, and ice.
populations and leverage outdoor cooling strategies. • Deployable Forests: Forests planted in large vehicles could form cool corri-
dors by providing shade and evapotranspiration. Dump truck-sized vehicles
Recommendation are capable of carrying up to 15 cubic yards of soil, which is enough to sup-
→ Design Cool-Down Pop-Ups for Heat-Vulnerable Neighborhoods port two to three young trees.114
The City could partner with community-based organizations and local artists to
design a series of pop-up installations that can be deployed in heat-vulnerable
neighborhoods during heatwaves. The pop-ups could range from summer social pro-
grams in parks to larger installations that are built on vacant or underutilized land.
Programming should aim to draw a variety of user profiles and age groups out from
their hot homes and build social resilience:

3 Enable Community Design of Case Study Mother Clara Hale Bus Depot
Cooling Centers
Located near Sugar Hill in Manhattan, the Mother Clara Hale Bus Depot
provides bus maintenance, bus wash, and storage. However, with the
2014 redesign, this formerly noxious site became a community asset
Data from the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene through community engagement and progressive design. By voluntarily
organizing design charrettes, the building was able to incorporate
(DOHMH) identifies that 65% of heat related deaths in 2013 took community-facing design, such as lower-level windows to increase vis-
place when people are in their homes. Where data was available, ibility, local art work on the facade glazing, filtration systems to
reduce emissions, and an attractive green roof for residents look-
eight out of nine of these homes did not have air-conditioning in ing down on the building. As one of the six MTA bus depots located in
use.115 Even where cooling centers are available, many residents environmental justice communities, the Mother Clara Hale Bus Depot is
decide to stay in their home, where they are likely at greater risk a net negative emissions building and it achieved LEED Gold Certi-
fication. Its more prominent features are a Solar Wall that provides
from heat-related illnesses. This occurs in part because resi- passive heating,120 Heat Recovery Units (HRUs) which perform six air
dents do not feel comfortable going to an unfamiliar space or exchanges per hour, and a green roof that significantly reduces the
internal building temperature for workers.
because the space does not suit their needs, such as lacking
comfortable furniture for seniors or programs for children.116 By
involving the community in designing cooling centers, the City
could make them more accessible and attractive.
Recommendation
→ Facilitate Community Design Sessions for Cooling Centers
The City could partner with community-based organizations to host community
design sessions. By giving the community an opportunity to define what an effec-
tive community center looks like, the community will have a greater sense of owner-
ship and be more likely to use the space during extreme heat events. The sessions
can vary in format: for example, one session could be a design charrette with break-
out groups led by community leaders to identify overall community needs, while
another session could focus on information gathering in public spaces such as
transit hubs. These sessions should be prioritized in neighborhoods that are listed
as HVI 4 or HVI 5 on the HVI.
Precedents
Power in Place is a project facilitated by the Design Trust for Public Space working to
support community-prioritized use of land by creating a community-driven plan.117 The facade of the Mother Clara Hale Bus Terminal feature sa colorful mural.
(Metropolitan Transportation Authority of the State of New York, CC BY 2.0)
The Post-Sandy Resiliency Help Desk program led by the Pratt Center for Community
Development created a pop-up design consultation center and hosted open hours.118
The DOT Street Ambassador Program works with communities at the very local level
to provide information and seek input on future projects.119

Given a toolkit of green infrastructure improvements that can reduce heat, BIDs
can reap triple bottom line benefits of their investments by pursuing beautification
efforts that also reduce surface-level temperatures.
→ Leverage BIDs to Promote Neighborhood Resiliency Practices

BIDs can serve as a platform to engage businesses in resiliency practices that ben-
efit the community. For example, BIDs could encourage their members to sign onto a
pledge to keep their commercial air-conditioning at a minimum level and accessible
to community residents during heat waves. This not only increases awareness of UHI
effect but also reduces the amount of waste heat pumped into the neighborhood.
Precedents
As an alternative to a traditional BID, in Sunset Park, UPROSE has established a
Green Resilient Improvement District (GRID), an association of small merchants
working together to advance neighborhood revitalization and resilience. The GRID
has been able to disseminate a climate resilience toolbox to small businesses and
rally support for other social issues facing the community.122
Local businesses in Fordham Heights. (Forefront Fellows)
4 Promote Neighborhood Resiliency

through BIDs
Business Improvement Districts (BIDs) establish a public/pri-
vate partnership through which property and business owners
make a collective contribution to the maintenance, develop-
ment, and promotion of their commercial district.121 Given the
primacy of a local context in determining heat vulnerability,
BIDs could be encouraged to promote heat resiliency practices
along commercial corridors.
Recommendation
→ Dedicate BID Funds to Green Infrastructure
BIDs can fund green infrastructure installations that not only beautify commercial
corridors but also reduce the UHI effect. BIDs often dedicate funds to street beauti-
fication efforts that make streets more walkable and livable and increase foot traffic.

Recommendations
→ Refresh Heat Wave Photostock
Current images of extreme heat do not accurately display how heat waves affect
vulnerable communities, especially inside their apartments and homes. Many heat
wave stock photos display images of people outside near beaches, fire hydrants, and
other public infrastructure. The effect of these images is that residents can think the
danger of a heat wave is outside their home, when in fact they are most vulnerable
inside.124 The City should hire a photographer to take photos of accurate sites of vul-
nerability during heat wave events and make them available to the AP, Reuters, and
stock photo companies to use. In addition to this, agencies and community-based
organizations could work with reporters and news agencies to encourage them
to utilize these photos for heat coverage. This could encourage a perception and
behavior shift from at-risk populations.
→ Enhance Functionality of NotifyNYC

In recent years, New York City launched the NotifyNYC messaging service to dis-
tribute public information about service updates, emergency alerts, and disruptions.
This platform is a good mechanism to consolidate alerts and increase public access
to vital information. During heat waves, the City could use public messaging net-
A senior uses a shaded sidewalk near Queensbridge Houses. (Forefront Fellows) works, including official and unofficial department communication channels, media
and news partners, and service providers to more aggressively promote downloads
and signups to NotifyNYC.
5 Enhance Citywide Messaging to The City should also learn from global best practices to increase the functionality of
the app and add utility for diverse residents and public officials. Targeting function-
Convey Heat Wave Risks ality could be improved by ensuring that users who fall into high-risk categories for
heat-related illness are provided additional alerts and access to resources and/or
mitigation strategies.
While heat is the most fatal extreme weather event in New York
City, messages about the danger of extreme heat are not effec- Precedents
tively reaching New Yorkers, particularly those at elevated risk The EXTREMA app is an emergency alert system for extreme heat, with features
including a personalized risk profile, cooling center information, and city-specific
for heat-illness. One study found that while meteorologists and dashboards.125
health reporters are seen as trusted sources of information, heat
wave imagery and messages did not accurately illustrate the
dangers or educate the public about potential mitigation strate-
gies.123 Creative communications strategies could help convey
the seriousness of heat waves and encourage people to take
more precautions during extreme heat conditions.

neighborhood and underlying health conditions. In addition to targeting at-risk pop-

ulations like seniors and those with underlying health conditions, communications
campaigns should be tailored towards immigrant communities. Many immigrants in
New York City come from countries with hot tropical climates, which may create a
false sense of security against extreme heat related issues.127 It is critical to commu-
nicate the differences between heat vulnerability in an urban context and tropical
climates.
Precedents
ThriveNYC’s Mental Health “Choose the Best Words” campaign to promote public
awareness of mental health skills uses tactics that could be adapted for raising
awareness of heat risk.128
→ Build Partnerships to Spread Awareness

The City could strategically partner with community-based organizations and pri-
vate companies that already serve vulnerable populations, including nonprofits,
churches, senior centers, health care providers, and pharmacies.
These partners could distribute vital public information about heat risks and risk
mitigation strategies. The City prepare different kinds resources to share with
Local businesses could help spread awareness of extreme heat. (George Piazza) partners:
• Checklists and/or toolkits for public health workers could ensure standard-
ized preparation and rapid response protocols based on heat warning levels.
6 Reach Vulnerable Groups with Partners should provide training materials, resources, and guidance to work-
ers before, during, and after heat waves.
Strategic Communications • Culturally-responsive content could communicate heat risks more effec-
tively. For example, the City could work with community-based organizations
Research shows that awareness of heat warnings was lowest and the Mayor’s Office of Immigrant Affairs to develop messaging immigrant
communities. Partners could post information in highly visible locations
among the most vulnerable New Yorkers.126 Researchers also such as bodega windows, community messaging boards, and social media
found that there is a gap between awareness of heat warnings pages at the start of the summer season and during a heat wave.
and taking protective measures like using air-conditioning or
The City should also expand joint training initiatives on heat risk for home health
seeking out a cooling center. These findings suggest that those aides, such as the Healthy Homes for Older Adults program conducted through a
who are at highest risk may remain unaware of key information partnership between DFTA, NYCEM and DOHMH.
which could lessen potential harmful impacts of heat illness. Precedent
Recommendations The Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan includes building public awareness as a primary
→ Launch Targeted Awareness Campaign strategy to combat extreme heat. The plan specifies a heat alert system for varying
levels of heat.129
The City should launch an awareness campaign targeting vulnerable populations
and communities. A key aspect of this plan could be an interactive public ther-
mometer campaign illustrating the severity of heat implications depending on

Design → Use Risk Registry for Targeted Outreach during Heat Waves
1. Provide Strategic Landscape Design 3. Enhance Emergency Communications During Heat Waves
→ Plant Trees and Vegetation on Residential Lots → Name Heat Wave Events
→ Landscape Vacant and Under-Utilized Lots → Manage Heat Wave Communications as Emergency Alerts
→ Leverage Existing Communications Infrastructure During Heat Waves
2. Retrofit Building Envelopes
→ Upgrade and Insulate Building Envelopes 4. Improve Transit Accessibility During Heat Emergencies
→ Allow Variance for Interior Insulation → Increase and Subsidize Transit Service During Heat Waves
→ Ensure Upgrades Provide Healthy Environments
5. Establish Indoor Building Temperature Reporting and Maximum Limits
3. Install Exterior Shading → Expand Local Law 84 to Require Benchmarking for Building Temperature
→ Adapt Shading to Suit Facade Requirements → Expand Local Law 86 to Include a Maximum Indoor Temperature
→ Update Building Code to Enable Optimal Exterior Shading
6. Enable Energy-Efficient Retrofits for Smaller Multi-Family Buildings
→ Deploy Movable or Permanent Shading on NYCHA Campuses
→ Expand Local Law 87 to Require Energy Efficiency Audits for Smaller
4. Scale Up Green Roofs for Existing Buildings Multi-Family Buildings
→ Expand Installation of Green Roofs on Existing Buildings → Offer Recommended Tactics as a Low-Cost Alternative to Audits
→ Encourage Equitable Distribution of Green Roofs → Create a Menu of Energy-Efficient Retrofits
5. Expand Cool Roofs and Facades for Existing Buildings 7. Cap Allowable Building Heat Rejection
→ Deploy High-Albedo Materials for Roofs and Walls → Establish Threshold for Maximum Allowable Heat Rejection at
→ Introduce Code Requirements for Cool Walls Building Scale
→ Refresh NYCHA Facades and Engage Residents with Cool Walls → Develop Methodology for Heat Threshold through NYCHA Pilot
→ Pilot Passive Daytime Radiative Cooling Paint on NYCHA Buildings
8. Establish Building Code for the Urban Heat Island
6. Introduce Green Facades → Incorporate Extreme Heat as Life Safety Issue in Building Code
→ Design Green Facades Suited to Facade Type and Climate
9. Specify Shade Requirements in Zoning Ordinances
→ Amend DOT Guidelines to Allow Green Facades
→ Introduce Shade Requirements in Zoning Ordinances
7. Increase Green Infrastructure in the Public Realm → Incorporate UHI Effects into CEQR Process
→ Include Green Infrastructure in Routine Streetscape Upgrades
→ Update DOT Tree Planting Standards
→ Expand Street Tree Planting to Include Areas Surrounding NYCHA Campuses Finance
8. Strategically Augment Shade Infrastructure 1. Expand PACE to Single-Family Homes

→ Leverage Cultural Programs to Create Shade Infrastructure → Enable Single- and Multi-Family Homeowners to Access PACE Financing
→ Transform Transit Corridors around NYCHA Campuses into Cool Corridors
2. Leverage Creative Partnerships to Fund Cooling Centers
→ Leverage Community Benefit Agreements to Fund Cooling Centers
→ Identify Creative Financing Tools for NYCHA Cooling Centers
Policy
3. Expand Programs to Lease Roofs to Solar Developers
1. Establish Neighborhood Heat Vulnerability Designations
→ Lease Underutilized Space to Solar Developers to Fund Shade
→ Establish Neighborhood-Scale HVI Designations
Infrastructure
→ Explore Land Use Guidance for HVI Designations
→ Pilot Solar Louver and Facade Systems to Expand Capacity for Solar
2. Create a Heat Wave Risk Registry Developments
→ Establish Voluntary Heat Wave Risk Registry
94 Recommendations Recommendations 95
Abb
Urban Design Forum Urban
Turning
Design
the Forum
Heat
4. Lease Open Spaces on NYCHA Campuses for Greening and Cooling

→ Pilot Leasing Open Space on NYCHA Campuses
5. Expand Financing Tools for NYCHA Comprehensive Retrofits

→ Develop New Financing Tools to Fund Comprehensive Retrofits
→ Expand Existing Incentives to Support Heat Resiliency
6. Leverage Funds from the Health Sector

→ Secure Financing from Health Industry to Invest in Heat Resiliency
revia
7. Direct Local Law 97 Funds towards Heat-Resilient Design
→ Invest a Portion of Local Law 97 Funds in Heat Resiliency
Community Resiliency
1. Expand the Reach of Cooling Centers

→ Incentivize Informal Cooling Centers
→ Prioritize Intergenerational Cooling Center Programming
2. Deploy Cool-Down Pop-Ups

→ Design Cool-Down Pop-Ups for Heat-Vulnerable Neighborhoods
3. Enable Community Design of Cooling Centers

→ Facilitate Community Design Sessions for Cooling Centers
tions
4. Promote Neighborhood Resiliency through BIDs
→ Dedicate BID Funds to Green Infrastructure
→ Leverage BIDs to Promote Neighborhood Resiliency Practices
5. Enhance Citywide Messaging to Convey Heat Wave Risks

→ Refresh Heat Wave Photostock
→ Enhance Functionality of NotifyNYC
6. Reach Vulnerable Groups with Strategic Communications

→ Launch Targeted Awareness Campaign
→ Build Partnerships to Spread Awareness
96 Recommendations 97 Recommendations
Abbreviations 97
ck
A
Abbreviations
s
ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers
BID: Business Improvement District
CBA: Community Benefit Agreement
CEQR: City Environmental Quality Review
nowl
CRRC: Cool Roof Rating Council
t
DFTA: Department for the Aging
n
DOB: Department of Buildings
DOHMH: Department of Health and Mental Hygiene
DOT: Department of Transportation
e
EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment
FAR: Floor Area Ratio
FHA: Federal Housing Administration
m
GHG: Greenhouse Gas
HRU: Heat Recovery Unit edge
HVAC: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
HVI: Heat Vulnerability Index
MOR: Mayor’s Office of Resiliency
MOS: Mayor’s Office of Sustainability
MTA: Metropolitan Transit Authority
NHS: National Housing Strategy
NORC: Naturally Occurring Retirement Community
NYCHA: New York City Housing Authority
NYCEEC: New York City Energy Efficiency Corporation
NYCEM: NYC Emergency Management
NYSERDA: New York State Energy Research and Development
Authority
PACE: Property Assessed Clean Energy
PACT: Permanent Affordability Commitment Together
PDRC: Passive Daytime Radiative Cooling
POPS: Privately Owned Public Space
SBS: Department of Small Business Services
SRI: Solar Reflectance Index
UHI: Urban Heat Island
WRP: Waterfront Revitalization Program
98 Abbreviations Acknowledgements 99
This report was only possible through Koetter, Kathryn Lane, Ryan Lobello,
the gracious support of many people. Nova Lucero, Zenobia McNally, Jeffrey
First, this book is first and foremost a Moelis, Crystal Ng, Rafael Pelli, Gabriel
testament to the brilliance of our Fore- Peschiera, Michael Prush, Ed Quinones,
front Fellows, who authored the rec- Paul Racco, Prathap Ramamurthy, Brian
ommendations compiled here: Digser Ravinsky, Mark Rusitzky, David Sailor,
Abreu, Lida Aljabar, Abraham Bendheim, Ya’el Santopinto, Jose Serrano, Leanne
Cyrus Blankinship, Brandon Cappellari, Spaulding, Mark Sraga, Graeme Stewart,
Eileen Chen, Renée Crowley, Rhon- Brian Stone, Gregory Tuba, Brian Vant-
da-Lee Davis, Dorraine Duncan, Lydia Hull, Simon Willett, Tracey Wright, and
Gaby, Annemarie Gray, Gregory Harasym, Matt Wolff.
Mike Harrington, Michael Izzo, Cather- Our team at the Urban Design Forum
ine Joseph, Gloria Lau, Amy Macdonald, supported this work with dedication
Rebecca Macklis, Amritha Mahesh, and enthusiasm. Daniel McPhee pro-
Pallavi Mantha, Kathy Mu, Manuela Pow- vided steadfast leadership at every
idayko, Jill Schmidt, Mallory Taub, and step. Andrew Pasquier and Guillermo
Autumn Visconti. Gomez lent many helping hands along
The Mayor’s Office of Resiliency were the way. Julia Bontempo provided heroic
integral partners in this work at every research, insight, and expertise to make
step. Kizzy Charles-Guzman provided this report possible, not to mention a few
visionary leadership and inspired our key Excel spreadsheets.
Forefront Fellows’ work. Daphne Lundi We are also grateful to the Robert Ster-
was the original mastermind of this ling Clark Foundation and the members
program and ensured that the work of our Director’s Circle, whose support
remained focused on impacted commu- made this report possible.
nities, first and foremost. Julia Eiferman Special thanks to our design team, Greg
and Leanne Spaulding provided critical Mihalko, Erik Riley, and Lulu Johnson
support. of Partner & Partners. And to our col-
We are extremely grateful to the many leagues at the Andrew Freeman House,
stakeholders who took time to speak Arup, Gensler, Robert AM Stern Archi-
with and advise our Fellows in their tects, and Snøhetta—thank you for wel-
research: Sharif Aggour, Kate Bassil, coming us into your offices and hosting
Bethany Borel, Eden Brukman, Amy us for workshops.
Buitenhuis, Gayle Bursey, Alan Chan,
Richard Chien, Craig Copeland, Zach
Craun, Bill Dean, April De Simone, George Piazza & Katherine Sacco
John di Domenico, Erica Funn-Jones, Urban Design Forum
Mark Ginsberg, Jared Gilbert, Wendy Fellows learn from local community leaders in Fordham Heights. (George Piazza)
Goodfriend, Meredith Jennings,
Sarah Johnson, Laurence Kalkstein,
Hana Kassem, Ladd Keith, Mackenzie
Kinard, Stefan Knust, John Koch, Maria
100 Acknowledgements Acknowledgements 101

End
Urban
Turning
Design
the Forum
Heat Turning the Heat
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104 Endnotes Endnotes 105

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Resiliency in New York City’s

Turning the Heat: Resiliency in New York City’s Heat-Vulnerable Neighborhoods

A Letter from the

The Urban Design Forum believes that designers have a responsibility

We hope that these guidelines will be a valuable resource to City offi-

Extreme heat poses an enormous public health threat to

The Marcus Garvey Apartments,

The median age of New York City’s residential buildings

→ Landscape Vacant and Under-Utilized Lots

Local Context: East Flatbush

1 Provide Strategic Landscape Many single-family lots in East Flat-

Design bush feature hardscapes and driveways

→ Allow Variance for Interior Insulation

2 Retrofit Building Envelopes

Case Study Ken Soble Tower Transformation

The Ken Soble Tower Transformation project is a rare example of a

Building SF: 80,000 sf

Program: Multi-family residential; 146 affordable senior housing units

Owner: CityHousing Hamilton

3 Install Exterior Shading

Mechanical Engineer: Reinbold Engineering Group

Building Envelope and Structural Engineers: Entuitive Corporation

to an annual savings of $0.23 per square foot of the roof’s

Buildings → Encourage Equitable Distribution of Green Roofs

Local Context: Fordham Heights 5 Expand Cool Roofs and Facades

→ Introduce Code Requirements for Cool Walls

→ Refresh NYCHA Facades and Engage Residents with Cool Walls

→ Pilot Passive Daytime Radiative Cooling Paint on NYCHA Buildings

compared to cool walls, planting vegetation also avoids

6 Introduce Green Facades → Amend DOT Guidelines to Allow Green Facades

“vertical vegetation” along a facade can reduce surface

investments in green infrastructure and expand tree plantings

→ Update DOT Tree Planting Standards

→ Expand Street Tree Planting to Include Areas Surrounding NYCHA Campuses

Local Context: Central Harlem

Central Harlem varies greatly in terms

8 Strategically Augment Shade

due to the presence of asphalt and concrete and waste heat

→ Leverage Cultural Programs to Create Shade Infrastructure 2

1. Establish Neighborhood Heat Vulnerability 43

1 Establish Neighborhood Heat

establish clearer neighborhood-scale designations. These designations could take

• Ground- and building-reported temperature data in local neighborhoods,

→ Explore Land Use Guidance for HVI Designations

Local Context: Fordham Heights

While the broader neighborhood of

→ Use Risk Registry for Targeted Outreach during Heat Waves

→ Leverage Existing Communications Infrastructure During Heat Waves

4 Improve Transit Accessibility

isolated inside their home. As a result, transit access is vital to

In the residential parts of Mott

5 Establish Indoor Building

for livable interior conditions exists, these standards should be

→ Expand Local Law 86 to Include a Maximum Indoor Temperature

City should help building owners overcome challenges includ-

→ Offer Recommended Tactics as a Low-Cost Alternative to Audits

→ Create a Menu of Energy-Efficient Retrofits

→ Develop Methodology for Heat Threshold through NYCHA Pilot

for dominant property types.