Qualitative Data Analysis

Week 8
Andre Samuel
 Introduction
• Qualitative research generates a large and
cumbersome amount of data
• Data is usuallyy generated
g from field notes,,
interview transcripts, focus groups and
observations
• The researcher must guard against being
captivated by the richness of the data
(analytic interruptus) and focus on carrying
out a true analysis
 General Strategies
1. Analytical Induction
Induction-
• It is an approach to the analysis of data
in which the researcher seeks
universal explanations of phenomena
• This is done by pursuing the collection
of data until no cases that are
yp
inconsistent with a hypothetical
explanation (deviant or negative case) of
a phenomena are found
The Process of Analytical
Induction
Research Question

Hypothetical
explanation of RQ

Examination of cases

Deviant case not No Deviant cases

confirming Hypothesis confirmed
Exclude
Deviant cases
Reformulate End of examination of cases.
hypothesis Data collection ends
2. Grounded Theory-
• Defined as ‘theory
theory that was derived from data’
data
systematically gathered and analyzed through the
research process.
• In this method, data collection, analysis and
eventual theory stand in close relationship to one
another
• The approach is iterative, meaning that data
collection and analysis proceed in tandem,
repeatedly referring back to each other
• Key tool of grounded theory strategy is CODING-
breaking down data into components
components, which are
given names
• Outcomes of grounded theory will be: Concepts,
Categories then Theory either Substantive theory
or Formal theory
 Tools/Techniques for Qualitative
A l i
Analysis
• Narrative Analysis-
Analysis concerned with the
search for and analysis of the stories that
people employ to understand the phenomena
around them.
– Riessman (1993) identified four models
• Thematic Analysis- focus
f on what is said rather than how it
is said
• Structural Analysis- emphasis on the way the story is
related.
l d
• Inter-actional Analysis- emphasis on dialogue between the
teller of the story and the listener
• Performative Analysis- emphasis on narrative as a
performance that explores the use of words and gestures
to get across a story
 Thematic Analysis
y
• Concerned with the search for themes
from data collected
collected.
• A theme is more or less the same as a
code
d or a group off codes.
d
• These codes should relate back to the
concepts from the literature review
• General strategy
gy should be to use a
Framework, a method developed by
National Centre for Social Research UK
• http://www.framework-natcen.co.uk/
• Framework is described as a matrixmatrix, for
ordering and synthesising data
• The idea is to construct a index of
central themes and subthemes
• These
Th th
themes are th then represented
t d iin a
matrix
• The themes and subthemes are the result
of a thorough reading and re-reading of
the transcripts or field notes that make up
the data
 The Framework Approach
Theme: Employee Commitment

Sub Theme 1 Sub Theme 2 Sub Theme 3 Sub Theme 4

Importance Work is Boredom Working
of Job Necessary with work Hours
Critique
Interviewee 1 Place brief
snippets from
responses tot
questions.
Interviewee 2

Interviewee 3
Rules for inserting material into
cells Ritchie et al (2003)
• Indicate where in the transcript the
fragment comes from, use question
number
• Keep the language of the research
participant as far as possible
• Try not to insert too much quoted material
• Use abbreviations in cells so that cells do
not become too full
 Looking
g for Themes Ryan and Bernard
(2003)

• Repetitions-
Repetitions topics that recur again ans
again
• Indigenous categories
categories- local expressions
• Metaphors or Analogies- participants
examples
l and d expression
i off th
their
i th
thoughts
ht
• Similarities and Differences
• Missing data
• Theory related data
Data Interpreting the meaning of
Analysis in Themes/Description
Qualitative
Research Interrelating Themes/Description
Creswell (2009
(2009,
pg 185)
Themes Description

Coding the data

Reading through all data

Organising and Preparing Data

for Analysis

Raw Data (transcripts, field notes

etc)
 Step 1- Organizing and
Preparing
• This involves:
– transcribing interviews
– Optically scanning material
– Typing up field notes
• S
Sorting
ti and d arranging
i the
th d
data
t iinto
t
different types depending on the source
off the
th data
d t
 Step 2- Read through all the
data
• Obtain a general sense of the information
• Reflect on its overall meaning
• What
Wh t generall idideas are the
th participant
ti i t
saying?
• Write notes in margins
• Start recordingg thoughts
g about the data
 Step 3-
3 Coding the data
• Coding is the starting point for most
qualitative
lit ti research h also
l called
ll d indexing
i d i
• It entails reviewing transcripts and field
notes and giving labels (names) to
component parts
• Coding also refers to the creation of
g
categories in relation to data
• The grouping together of different
instances of datum under an umbrella
term to be regarded as of the same type
 Consideration in developing
Codes Lofland and Lofland (1995)
• Of what general category is this item of
data an instance?
• What does this item of data represents?
• What
Wh t iis thi
this ititem off d
data
t about?
b t?
• Of what topic is this item of data an
instance?
 Types of Coding Practice
Strauss and Corbin (1990)
• Open Coding- the process of breaking
down examining and categorizing data
down,
• Axial Coding- a set of procedures
whereby data are put back together in new
ways after open coding by making
connections between categories
• Selective Coding- the procedure of
systematically relating the core category to
other categories and validating those
relationships. The core category is the
central issue or focus
Some ways in which Categories
can be related
• Cause- Code A causes Code B
• Property- Code A is a Property of Code B
• A
Aspect-
t Code
C d A is
i an Aspect
A t off Code
C d B
• Associate- Code A is Associated with
Code B
• Result- Code A Results from Code B
• Contrast- Code A contrasts with Code B
 Steps and Consideration in
Coding Bryman (2008, pg.550-552)
1 Code as soon as possible ii.e.
1. e code as
you go along
2 Begin transcription at an early stage
2.
3. Read through you initial set of transcripts
andd jjott d
down a ffew generall notes;
t
interesting, important, significant
4. Do it again, this time make marginal
notes perhaps keywords, names to
themes in the data i.e. generate an index
of terms
5. Review
5 e e youyour codes a andd co
compare
pa e them
e to
o
the concepts from your literature review
6 Finalize your codes and categories
6.
7. Turn the data into fragments i.e. cut and
paste the chunks of data into a file
8. Try to maintain track of origins of each
chunk
h k
9. Do this for all your transcripts
10.You should end up with a file for each
category
g y or code
 Guidance for Coding Process
Tesch (1990, pg. 142-145)

1 Get a sense of the whole-

1. whole read all
transcripts
2 Pick one document
2. document- go through it, it ask
What is this about? Write thoughts in
margin
3. After several transcripts have been read
make
k a lilistt off ttopics.
i
4. Cluster together similar topics
5 Go back to the data
5. data. Abbreviate the
topics as codes and write the codes next
to the appropriate segments of the text
6. Find the most descriptive wording for your
topics and turn them into categories
7. Group topics that relate to each other
8. Abbreviate each category
9. Alphabetize
p these categories/codes
g
10.Assemble the data belonging to each
category in one place,
place keep track!
 Tip on Coding
• Create codes:
– that readers would expect
– Based on past literature i.e.
i e theme from
Literature Review
– That are surprising ii.e.
e not anticipated at
beginning of study or revealed from Lit
Review
 An Alternative
C
Conceptualization
t li ti Bogdan and Biklen
(1992, pg. 166-172)

• Setting and Context codes

• Perspectives held by subjects
• Subject’s way of thinking about people and
objects
• Processes
ocesses codes
• Activity codes
• Strategy codes
• Relationship and Social Structure codes
 Final Tip on Coding
• Consider whether you should:
– Develop codes on the basis of the emerging
information collected from participants
– Use predetermined codes and then fit the
data to them
– Use some combination of the above
Step 4- Generate a Description
and Theme
• Description involves a detailed rendering
of information
• Use the code to generate a small number
of themes or categories 5 to 7
• These
Th th
themes are th
the ones that
th t appear
as major findings and are used to
createt h
headings
di andd subheadings
bh di in
i
the Findings and Analysis Chapter of
th Dissertation
the Di t ti
 Step 5-
5 Interrelate Themes
• Use a narrative passage to convey the
findings of the analysis
• Interconnect themes into a story line
• Build additional layers of complex
analysis
l i
– Theme A cause Theme B etc
– Intervening Themes
• Use visuals, figures
g and tables to aid
discussions
• Grounded Theory-
Theory develop theme into a
theoretical model
• Case Study
Study- themes are analyzed for each
individual case and across different cases
• Phenomenology-
Ph l th
themes are shaped
h d iinto
t
a general description

• See handout on Collecting

g and Analysing
y g
Qualitative Data pg 4-9
 Step 6-
6 Interpretation
• Make sense of the data
• Get the meaning
• A k What
Ask- Wh t were the
th lessons
l llearned?
d?
• Lessons could be:
– Researchers personal interpretation
– Meaning g derived from comparison
p of the
findings with information gleaned from the
literature and theories reviewed in earlier
chapter
h t or best
b t practice
ti
• By doing this comparison you can
– Suggest that the findings confirm past findings
– Diverge
Di from
f pastt findings
fi di
– Suggest new questions that need to be asked
(future research)
• More importantly you can form
i t
interpretations
t ti th
thatt callll for:
f
– Action
– Reform and change
• Thats how you get the Conclusions and
Recommendations!
 Using Nvivo 7 Software
Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis
Software (CAQDAS)
• They allow researchers to code text and
retrieve coded text
• The computer software takes over the
physical task of:
– writing marginal codes of transcripts
– Creating fragments by cutting and pasting all
text relating to a code
• But the researcher must still interpret the
data
 More info Websites
• www.qsrinternational.com
www qsrinternational com
• www.atlasti.com
• www.qualiresearch.com
li h

• Free download of NVivo from Anglia

y E Libraryy
Ruskin University
 Writing Up the Analysis
• Use quotes from participants and vary
g
their lengths from short to long
g embedded
messages
• Intertwine quotes with your
interpretations
• Use literature and best practice i.e.
ie
industry examples or industry research
findings to compare
• And of course present in accordance
with
ith the
th Theme
Th d i d ii.e. use h
derived headings
di
and sub headings
 References
• Bryman. A (2008) Social Research Methods, 3rd edition,
Oxford Universityy Press
• Bogdan. R C & Biklen. S K (1992) Qualitative research
for education: An introduction to theory and methods.
Boston Allyn
Boston, All n & Bacon
• Riessman. C K (1993) Narrative Analysis, Newbury
Park,, Sage
g
• Ritchie J, Spencer L, O’Connor W (2003) Carrying out
Qualitative Analysis in J Ritchie and J Lewis (eds),
Q lit ti Research
Qualitative R hP Practice:
ti AG
Guide
id ffor S
Social
i l
Science Students and Researchers, London Sage
• Lofland J and Lofland L (1995) Analysing Social
Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observations and
Analysis, 3rd edition, Belmont California, Wadsworth
• Strauss A and Corbin J M (1990) Basics of Qualitative
Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and
Techniques, Newbury Park, Sage
• Ryan G W and Bernard H R (2003) Techniques to
Identify Themes, Fields Methods 15, pg 85-109
• Creswell. J.W., (2009) Research Design, Qualitative,
Quantitative and Mixed Method Approaches, 3rd Edition,
Sage Publications Inc.
• Tesch R (1990) Qualitative Research: Analysis types
and software tools, New York, Falmer