Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis

1. Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis

1.1. NOTES

Tables 1.1 through 1.12 provide formulas for the determination of stresses in
structural elements for various loading conditions. To evaluate the results, it
is necessary to compare the computed stresses with existing norm
requirements.

Table 1.1. Stress and Strain: Tension and Compression

Example for Tables 1.2 and 1.3a. Bending

Given. Shape W 14 × 30, L = 6 m

Table 1.2. Stress and Strain: Bending
Table 1.3. Stress and Strain: Bending
1.1.1. Strain Energy

Stressing a bar stores energy in it. For an axial load P and a deformation e ,
the energy stored is
(1.1a )

assuming the load is applied gradually and the bar is not stressed beyond
the proportional limit. The equation represents the area under the load-
deformation curve up to the load P .

Another useful equation for energy, in·lb, is

(1.1b )

where f = unit stress, psi

E = modulus of elasticity of material, psi

A = cross-sectional area, in 2

L = length of bar, in

Since AL is the volume of the bar, the term f 2/2E gives the energy stored per
unit of volume. It represents the area under the stress-strain curve up to the
stress f .

Modulus of resilience is the energy stored per unit of volume in a bar

stressed by a gradually applied axial load up to the proportional limit. This
modulus is a measure of the capacity of the material to absorb energy
without danger of being permanently deformed. It is important in designing
members to resist energy loads.

Equation (1.1a ) is a general equation that holds true when the principle of
superposition applies (the total deformation produced at a point by a
system of forces is equal to the sum of the deformations produced by each
force). In the general sense, P in Eq. (1.2a ) represents any group of
statically interdependent forces that can be completely defined by one
symbol, and e is the corresponding deformation.

The strain-energy equation can be written as a function of either the load or

the deformation. For axial tension or compression, strain energy, in inch-
pounds, is given by
(1.2a )

where P = axial load, lb

e = total elongation or shortening, in

L = length of member, in

A = cross-sectional area, in 2

E = modulus of elasticity, psi

For pure shear:

(1.2b )

where V = shearing load, lb

e = shearing deformation, in

L = length over which deformation takes place, in

A = shearing area, in 2

G = shearing modulus, psi

For torsion:

(1.2c )

where T = torque, in·lb

ϕ = angle of twist, rad

L = length of shaft, in

J = polar moment of inertia of cross section, in 4

G = shearing modulus, psi

For pure bending (constant moment):

(1.2d )

where M = bending moment, in·lb

θ = angle of rotation of one end of beam with respect to other, rad

L = length of beam, in

I = moment of inertia of cross section, in 4

E = modulus of elasticity, psi

For beams carrying transverse loads, the total strain energy is the sum of the
energy for bending and that for shear.

1.1.2. Strain Energy in Structural Members

[1]Strain energy is generated in structural members when they are acted on

by forces, moments, or deformations. Formulas for strain energy U , for shear,
torsion, and bending in beams, columns, and other structural members are
as follows:

1.1.2.1. S TRAIN ENERGY IN S HEAR

For a member subjected to pure shear, strain energy is given by

(1.3)

(1.4)

where V = shear load

Δ = shear deformation

L = length over which deformation takes place

A = shear area
 G = shear modulus of elasticity

1.1.2.2. S TRAIN ENERGY IN TORSION

For a member subjected to torsion

(1.5)

(1.6)

where T = torque

Δ = angle of twist

L = length over which the deformation takes place

J = polar moment of inertia

G = shear modulus of elasticity

1.1.2.3. S TRAIN ENERGY IN BENDING

For a member subjected to pure bending (constant moment)

(1.7)

(1.8)

where M = bending moment

θ = angle through which one end of beam rotates with respect to the other
end

L = length over which the deformation takes place

I = moment of inertia
 E = modulus of elasticity

For beams carrying transverse loads, the total strain energy is the the sum of
the energy for bending and that for shear.

Table 1.4. Stress and Strain: Combination of Compression (Tension)

and Bending
Table 1.5. Stress and Strain: Torsion
1.1.3. Stress-Strain Relations

When a material is subjected to external forces, it develops one or more of

the following types of strain: linear elastic, nonlinear elastic, viscoelastic,
plastic, and anelastic. Many structural materials exhibit linear elastic strains
under design loads. For these materials, unit strain is proportional to unit
stress until a certain stress, the proportional limit, is exceeded (point A in
Fig. 1.1a to c ). This relationship is known as Hooke's law.

Figure 1.1. Relationship of unit stress and unit strain for various
materials. ( a ) Brittle. ( b ) Linear elastic with a distinct proportional
limit. ( c ) Linear elastic with an indistinct proportional limit. ( d)
Nonlinear.

For axial tensile or compressive loading, this relationship may be written

(1.9)

where f = unit stress

ε = unit strain

E = Young's modulus of elasticity

Table 1.6. Stress and Strain: Curved Beams

Within the elastic limit, there is no permanent residual deformation when the
load is removed. Structural steels have this property.

In nonlinear elastic behavior, stress is not proportional to strain, but there is

no permanent residual deformation when the load is removed. The relation
between stress and strain may take the form
(1.10)

where K = pseudoelastic modulus determined by test

n = constant determined by test

Viscoelastic behavior resembles linear elasticity. The major difference is that

in linear elastic behavior, the strain stops increasing if the load does; but in
viscoelastic behavior, the strain continues to increase although the load
becomes constant and a residual strain remains when the load is removed.
This is characteristic of many plastics.

Anelastic deformation is time-dependent and completely recoverable. Strain

at any time is proportional to the change in stress. Behavior at any given
instant depends on all prior stress changes. The combined effect of several
stress changes is the sum of the effects of the several stress changes taken
individually.

Example for Table 1.7. Continuous deep beam

Table 1.7. Stress and Strain: Continuous Deep Beams

Given. Beam L = 3.0 m, h = 2.0 m, c = 0.3 m, thickness b = 0.3 m, w = 200
kN/m

Required. Compute Z, D, d, d 0, and σmax for center of span and support.

Solution. At center of span:

At center of support:
NOTE: Tables 1.8 to 1.12 consider computation methods for elastic systems
only.

Table 1.8. Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Transverse Oscillations of the

Beams
Table 1.9. Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Transverse Oscillations of the
Beams
Table 1.10. Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Transverse Oscillations of the
Beams
Table 1.11. Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Impact
Table 1.12. Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Impact
1.1.4. Stress and Strain Failure Analysis

Material properties are usually determined from tests in which specimens

are subjected to simple stresses under static or fluctuating loads. The
attempt to apply these data to bi- or triaxial stress fields has resulted in
the proposal of various theories of failure. Figure 1.2 shows the principal
stresses on a triaxially stressed element. It is assumed, for simplicity, that S 1
> S > S . Compressive stresses are negative.
> S 2 > S 3. Compressive stresses are negative.

Figure 1.2. Principal stresses.

1. Maximum stress theory (Rankine) assumes failure occurs when the

largest principal stress reaches the yield stress in a tension (or
compression) specimen. That is S 1 = ±S y .

2. Maximum shear theory(Coulomb) assumes yielding (failure) occurs when

the maximum shearing stress equals that in a simple tension (or
compression) specimen at yield. Mathematically, S 1 – S 3 = ±S y .

3. Maximum strain energy theory (Beltrami) assumes failure occurs when

the energy absorbed per unit volume equals the strain energy per unit
volume in a tension (or compression) specimen at yield. Mathematically,

4. Maximum distortion energy theory (von Mises and Hencky) assumes

yielding occurs when the distortion energy equals that in simple tension at
yield. The distortion energy—that portion of the total energy which causes
distortion rather than volume change—is

Thus failure is defined by

5. Maximum strain theory (Saint-Venant) claims failure occurs when the

maximum strain equals the strain in simple tension at yield or

6. Internal friction theory (Mohr). When the ultimate strengths in tension

and compression are the same, this theory reduces to that of maximum
shear. For principal stresses of opposite sign, failure is defined by

if the signs are the same, S uc , where S uc is the

 ultimate strength in compression.

A graphical representation of the first four theories applied to a biaxial

stress field is presented in Fig. 1.3. Stresses outside the bounding lines in
the case of each theory mean failure (yield or fracture). A comparison with
experimental data proves the distortion energy theory (4) best for ductile
materials of equal tension-compression properties. When these properties
are unequal, the internal energy theory (6) appears best. In practice, judging
by some accepted codes, the maximum shear theory (2) is generally used for
ductile materials and the maximum stress theory (1) for brittle materials.

Figure 1.3. Biaxial stress field.

Fatigue failures cannot be related, theoretically, to elastic strength and thus

to the theories described. However, experimental results justify this, at least
to a limited extent. Therefore, the theory evaluation given above holds for
fluctuating stresses, provided that principal stresses at the maximum load
are used and the endurance strength in simple bending is substituted for
the yield strength.

For example, a steel shaft, with 4-in diameter, is subjected to a bending

moment of 120,000 in · lb, as well as a torque. If the yield strength in tension
is 40,000 psi, what maximum torque can be applied under (a ) the maximum
shear theory and (b ) the distortion energy theory?
Substituting and simplifying,

Figure 1.4. Deflection, force, and stress relations for curved springs.
(Product Engineering.)
Figure 1.5. Correction factors for curved springs. (Product
Engineering.)

Example for Table 1.11. Bending

Required. Compute dynamic stress σ.

Example for Table 1.11. Crane cable

Given. Load P = 40 kN, velocity υ = 5 m/s

Cable: diameter d = 5.0 cm, A = 19.625 cm2, L = 30 m,

Required. Compute dynamic stress σ for sudden dead stop.

Solution.

Stress:

1.1.5. Analysis and Design of Flat Metal Springs

Figure 1.6. Flat metal spring formulas.

W = save load or pull, lb (N)

F = deflection at point of application, in (cm)

2
 S = safe tensile stress of material, lb/in 2 (kPa)

E = modulus of elasticity, 30 × 10 6 for steel (kPa)

Figure 1.7. Recommended bending stresses for torsion springs.

(Product Engineering.)

[1]Brockenbrough and Merritt, Structural Steel Designer's Handbook ,

McGraw-Hill.

Citation
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Ilya Mikhelson, Ph.D.; Tyler G. Hicks, P.E.: Structural Engineering Formulas, Second
Edition. Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis, Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional,
2013), AccessEngineering

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