ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter II

Chapter II

UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
1.1 Values, Units and Dimensions

The ability to solve problems by using engineering calculations represents the very essence of
engineering. While certainly not all engineering problems can be solved by using numerical
calculations, such calculations are absolutely necessary for the development of technical
solutions. Engineering calculations make it possible to describe the physical world in terms of
units and dimensions that are understood by all those with whom communication takes place.

Study of the units are very important in the engineering. A quantity is described by values and
units. Units simply describe what the quantity is about. While measuring and reporting an
environmental quantity, both of these items need to be mentioned. For example, a river discharge
of 500 m3/s, a sand particle of 2 mm, snow mass of 500 km3 in Himalayas. In the study of
environmental engineering it is quite common to encounter both extremely large quantities and
extremely small ones. The concentration of some toxic substance may be measured in parts per
billion while the discharge of a large river may be measured with a larger unit. To describe
quantities that may take on such extreme values, it is useful to have a system of prefixes that
accompany the units. Some of the most important prefixes are presented in Table 2.1. The size of
a colloidal particle to the area covered by urban settlement serve the good example of the
quantities to be handled. Thus it is essential to use a practical and less scientific figure to represent
the quantity under consideration. Specific symbols are also used to describe these quantities.

Dimension is a unique quantity that describes a basic characteristics of the measurement. Mass
(M), length (L) and time (T) are three fundamental dimensions. Dimensions are descriptive but
not numerical. They can not describe how much; they simply describe what. For example, the
length (L) dimension may be described in units as meters, inches or Angstrom. A Summary of
some of the commonly used key parameters, their symbols and their dimension is given in Box 1.

Table 2.1 Common Prefixes

Quantity Prefix Symbol
10-12 pico p
10-9 nano n
10-6 micro 
10-3 milli m
10-2 centi c
10-1 deci d
10 deca da
102 hector h
103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
1012 tera T
1015 peta P
1018 exa E

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Box 1 : Commonly used parameters, their notation and dimension

( Dimensions are denoted as: length – L; Mass-M; time-T; temperature - ; mole = mol. )
Symbol Quantity Dimension
I. Geometric dimensions, amounts, concentrations
H Height or depth L
L Length L
 Thickness L
2
A Area L
V Volume L3
 Intergranual porosity or void fraction -
-3
X Particulate material concentration ML
S Soluble material concentration ML-3
C Total material concentration (particulate plus
soluble ) ML-3
II. Thermodynamic parameters
T Temperature 
p Total pressure ML-1 T-2
R Ideal gas constant ML-1T-2 -1mol-1
P Power ML2T-3
III. Physical properties of matter
D Diffusion coefficient, dispersion coefficient or L2T-1
material diffusivity
 Dynamic viscosity ML-1 T-2
 Kinematic viscosity L2T-1
 Density ML-3
IV. Time, velocities, and flow rates
t Chronological or running time T
 Space time ( volume of reaction phase divided by
volumetric flow rate of phase entering the reactor) T
T Mean hydraulic residence time T
x Mean solids residence time T
-1
u Velocity LT
g Gravitational acceleration LT-2
Q Liquid volumetric flow rate L3T-1
QG Gas volumetric flow rate L3T-1
R Recycle ratio -
V. Parameters of mass flow rate and reaction rates
F Mass flow rate MT-1
BA Mass flow rate per unit area ML-2T-1
BV Mass flow rate per unit volume or volumetric
loading rate ML-3T-1
rA Reaction rate per unit area ML-2T-1
 Specific biomass growth rate T-1
max Maximum specific biomass growth rate T-1
Y Biomass yield coefficient MM-1
k Reaction rate coefficient or constant Dimension depends
on kinetic model
Ks Saturation constant, half velocity coefficient, or
Michaelis-Menton constant ML-3
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ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter II

1.2 Size

Substances causing pollution can exist in water in one of three classifications: suspended,
colloidal or dissolved. Having knowledge of the size of these substances is important in
understanding the different aspects of the pollution. Table 2.2 provides a list of selected particles
and their sizes.

Table 2.2: Average size of the substances

Substances Size
cm mm m
Gravel 1 10 10,000
Sand 1 1000
Fine sand (diameter of body hair) 100
Algae 50
Fungi 50
Clay 10
Giardia 10
Cryptosporidium 5
Bacteria 1
Protozoa 1-300
Colloidal particle 0.1
Humic acid 0.05
Dissolved particle 0.001
Note : 1 meter(m) = 100 centimeter (cm) = 1000 millimeter (mm) = 106 micrometer (m) = 109
nanometer (nm)

1.3 Concentration and density

The mass density or density of a material or a solution is defined as its mass per unit volume, or

M

V

Where  = density
M = mass
V = volume

In SI system, the base unit for density is kg/m3.

Water in the SI system has a density of 1 × 103 kg/m3, which is equal to 1 g/cm3.

Where as the concentration of a substance in a solution is defined as mass of solute per unit
volume of the solution ( including solute and liquid).
MA
CA 
V A  VB

Where CA = concentration of A
MA = Mass of material A
VA = Volume of material A

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ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter II

Fig. 1 : Particle size removal range by filtration process

In SI system, the basic unit for concentration is kg/m3.

A typical example of the concentration of total dissolved solid in a polluted river like at Bagmati
at Teku is 825 mg/L or 0.825 kg/m3.

Since solutes in solution are often analyzed by weight the terms milligram per liter or microgram
per liter is used. It is often assumed that the substance does not change the density of water. If
such assumption is made and we recall that 1 mL water weighs 1 g, then

1 mg 10 3 mL 10 3 mL 1 mL
    1 ppm
L L 10 3 mL 10 6 mL

1 mg 1 mg 1 mg 1 mg
   1 ppm
L 1000 mL 10 00 g 10 6 mg

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ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter II

Alternative proof

mass of solution
If the density of a solution =  
volume of solution

mass of constituent
and concentration of a constituent in mg/L = C A1  ( mg / L)
volume of solution
mass of constituen t
and concentration of a constituent in ppm = C A2  ( mg / kg )
mass of solution

then rearranging,
C A1

C A2
If  = 1 kg/L, then CA1 = CA2

i.e. the concentration of a constituent in ppm mg/kg = concentration of a constituent in mg/L

For most applications in water and wastewater environment,  = 1 kg/L. For applications in the
air environment, the equation is not applicable. The use of mg/L is most common in water
applications as the volume of the solution is usually determined as well as the mass of the solute.
The unit ppm is typically used in sludges or sediments.

Some material concentrations are most conveniently expressed as percentages, usually in terms of
mass:
MA
A 
MA MB
where A = percent of material A
MA = mass of material A
MB = mass of material B

A can also be expressed as a ration of volumes.

1.3 Flow (discharge) rate

The flow rate can be expressed as volume of the liquid per unit time.
QV = V/T

where QV = Volumetric flow rate

V = Volume of the liquid
T= Time period

In SI system, the basic unit of volumetric flow rate is m3/s.

The flow of water is measured in units of volume per unit time. Commonly used units for flow
measurement are: liter per second (lps), liter per day (LD), millions liter per day (MLD), cubic
meter per second (m3/s).

1 m3 = 1000 L

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ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter II

1 MLD = 106 Liters per day

एक करोड िलटर ित दन = 10 MLD

In engineering processes the flow rate can be either volume flow rate or mass flow rate. Mass and
volumetric flow rates are not independent quantities because the mass (M) of material passing a
point in a flow line during unit time is related to the volume (V) of that material.

QM = M / T = (Concentration  Volume) / T = Concentration  Volumetric flow rate

QM = C A  QV

Mass flow rate of waste materials is also called as “waste load” which is often measured in
kg/day. For example, the BOD or nutrient loads of a wastewater discharged from a community.
Biochemcial Oxygen demand (BOD) is measured in mg/L, therefore, this concentration should be
multiplied by the wastewater flow rate to get the BOD load.

Example 1 : A stream can have a sediment load of upto 2000 mg/L in the rainy season. The
stream water has been diverted using a dam and is supplied to a treatment plant. The
tapped flow is 25 lps (liters per second). Find the mass flow rate of the sediment in the
influent pipe. If the treatment plant can remove 90 % of the suspended solids, find the
concentration of sediments in the effluent of treatment plant ?
Solution:

Given data
Concentration of suspended solids in the transmission pipe (C) = 2000 mg/L
Flow tapped (Q) = 25 lps
Efficiency of treatment plant () = 90 %

Mass removal rate (QM) = C  Q

mg L
 200  25
L s

mg L 1 kg s
 200  25  6
 86400
L s 10 mg day

= 432 kg/day

Concentration of sediments removed by the treatment plant = 90 % of 2000 mg/L

= 1800 mg/L

Concentration of sediments in the effluent = 10 % of 2000 mg/L

= 200 mg/L

1.5 Retention Time

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ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter II

One of the most important concepts in treatment processes is retention time, also called detention time or
even residence time. is the time an average particle of the fluid spends in a container through which the
fluid flows (which is the time it is exposed to treatment or a reaction). An alternate definition is the time it
takes to fill the container.

Mathematically, if the volume of a container, such as large holding tank, is V (m3), and the flow rate to the
tank is Q (m3/s), then the retention time is :
V
T=
Q
The average retention time can be increased by reducing the flow rate Q or increasing the volume V, and
decreased by doing the opposite.

In SI system, the basic unit of retention time is sec.

1.6 Approximations in engineering calculations

Engineers are often called on to provide information not in its exact form but as approximations.
For example, a KU engineering graduate may be asked by a client, such as a mayor of Dhulikhel,
what it might cost to construct a new wastewater treatment plant for the population of Dhulikhel.
The mayor is not asking for an exact figure but a tentative estimate. Obviously, the engineer
cannot in a few minutes conduct a thorough cost estimate. S/he would recognize the highly
variable nature of land costs, construction costs, coverage of the municipality as it extends to rural
areas as well, required treatment efficiency, etc. Yet, the mayor wants a preliminary estimate – a
number – and quickly !

In the face of such problems the engineer has to draw on whatever information might be available.
For example, s/he might know that the population of the community to be served is approximately
50, 000. Next, s/he estimates, based on experience, that the domestic wastewater flow might be
about 100 Liter per person per day, thus requiring a plant of about 5 MLD capacity. With room
for expansion, industrial effluents, storm inflow and infiltration of groundwater into the sewers,
s/he may estimate that 7 MLD capacity may be adequate. Such domestic wastewater treatment
plant, s/he is aware, cost about 25 crore (करोड) Nepali Rupees per MLD of influent wastewater
treated. S/he calculates that the plant would cost about 105 crore Nepali Rupees. Giving
him/herself a cushion, she could respond by saying, “about 1.1 billion Nepali Rupees”.

This is exactly the type of information the mayor seeks. S/he has no use for anything more
accurate because s/he might be trying to decided whether to ask for a budget of 1 billion or 1.5
billion. There is time enough for more exact calculations later ( Slightly modified from Vesilind
and Morgan, 2004).

1.7 Procedures for calculations with approximations:

Problems not requiring exact solutions can be solved by

2. Carefully defining the problem

3. Introducing simplifying assumptions
4. Calculating an answer
5. Checking the answer, both systematically and realistically.

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ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter II

Defining the problem:

The engineer in the previous case is asked for an estimate, not an exact figure. The intended
figures might have been required for preliminary planning purposes and thus, valid
approximations are adequate. Similarly, s/he also recognizes that the mayor wants a cost figure
answer, thus establishing the units.

Simplifying:

The engineer should use intuition and judgment in simplifying the problem. For example, the
engineer has to first estimate the population served and then consider the average flow. What does
s/he ignore? Obviously, a great deal, such as daily transient flows, variability in living standards
and seasonal variations. A thorough estimate of potential wastewater flows requires a major study.
S/he has to simplify her problem and choose to consider only an estimate of the population and an
average per capita discharge.

Calculating:

The calculations are usually straight forward.

Checking:

The important procedure is the process of checking. The two types of checking are systematic and
realistic.

In systematic checking, the units are checked to see whether they make sense or not.

For example,
 Liters 
 persons x   = liters which make sense
 persons 
While,
persons
 Liters 
 persons 
 

 persons
2

=
Liters

doesnot make any sense. If such is the case, the numbers should be recalculated to check for
mistakes. It is wise always to write the units as the calculation proceeds and finally have a check
of the units.

Reality checking is also necessary which when routinely performed will save considerable pain
and embarrassment. Possibly no practicing engineer will explicitly recognize that they perform
reality checks day in and day out, but such checks are central to good engineering. Consider, for
example, if the engineer had made a mistake and thought (erroneously) that a wastewater
treatment plant needed by Dhulikhel Municipality costs 25 billion per MLD of wastewater
treated. With this figure, the cost of the treatment plant will turn out to be 105 billion Nepali

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ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter II

Rupees. On reporting this to the mayor, he might say “I would construct 100 wastewater treatment
plants with 105 billion Nepali Rupees”.

Example 2 : The wastewater treatment plant in Guheshwori receives 0.20 m3/s of

wastewater. The plant was established to directly serve a population of 2  105 in Gokarna
and Chabahil area. The total project cost of the plant was half billion Nepali Rupees (NRs)
in 1999. Estimate the per capita cost of the project in 1999 in (a) NRs / MLD of treated
wastewater and (b) NRs/individual benifited.

Class activities

(1) What must be the volume of a drop of water dripped from a faucet? Estimate the loss of water in
a day and a year?

(2) What must be the thickness of a sheet in a book? Estimate the thickness of sheets in a book.

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