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5 Partial Fractions
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5.1 Introduction 5.2 Rational Fraction

We have learnt in the previous classes how to add two or more rational fractions into
p
a single rational fraction. For example, We know that where p, q U Z and q ≠ 0 is called a rational number.
q
+ = where Q( x) ≠ 0,
1 2 3x
x -1 x + 2 ( x - 1)( x + 2)
i) P( x)
Similarly, the quotient of two polynomials with no common
Q( x)

5x2 + 5x - 3
factors, is called a Rational Fraction. A rational fraction is of two types:
+ + =
2 1 3
x + 1 ( x + 1) 2 x - 2 ( x + 1) 2 )( x - 2)
and ii)
5.2.1 Proper Rational Fraction
In this chapter we shall learn how to reverse the order in (i) and (ii) that is to express
P( x)
a single rational function as a sum of two or more single rational functions which are called A rational fraction is called a Proper Rational Fraction if the degree of the
Q( x)
Partial Fractions.
Expressing a rational function as a sum of partial fractions is called Partial Fraction polynomial P( x) in the numerator is less than the degree of the polynomial Q( x) in the

2x - 5
Resolution. It is an extremely valuable tool in the study of calculus.
3 9 x2
x +1 x + 4 x -1
An open sentence formed by using the sign of equality ‘=’ is called an equation. The denominator. For example, , 2 and 3 are proper rational fractions or
equations can be divided into the following two kinds: proper frations.
Conditional equation: It is an equation in which two algebraic expressions are equal
for particular value/s of the variable e.g., 5.2.2 Improper Rational Fraction
3 P( x)
a) 2x = 3 is a conditional equation and it is true only if x = . A rational fraction is called an Improper Rational Fraction if the degree of the
2
b) x2 + x - 6 = 0 is a conditional equation and it is true for x = 2, - 3 only.
Q( x)

polynomial P ( x) in the numerator is equal to or greater than the degree of the polynomial
Note: For simplicity, a conditional equation is called an equation.
Q( x) in the denominator.

Identity: It is an equation which holds good for all values of the variable e.g., x ( x - 2)( x + 1) x 2 - 3 x3 - x 2 + x + 1
2 x - 3 ( x - 1)( x + 4) 3 x + 1 x2 + 5
a) (a + b) x = ax + bx is an identity and its two sides are equal for all values of x. For example, , , and
b) (x + 3) (x + 4) = x2 + 7x + 12 is also an identity which is true for all values of x.
For convenience, the symbol “=” shall be used both for equation and identity. are improper rational fractions or improper fractions.
Any improper rational fraction can be reduced by division to a mixed form, consisting
of the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational fraction.

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We now discuss the following cases of partial fractions resolution.

3x 2 + 1
x-2
For example, is an improper rational fraction. By long division we obtain P( x)
Case I: Resolution of into partial fractions when Q( x) has only non-repeated
3x 2 + 1
= 3x + 6 +
Q( x)
13
x-2 x-2 linear factors:

3x 2 + 1
The polynomial Q( x) may be written as:
Q( x) = (x - a1)(x - a2) .... (x - an), where a1 ≠ a2 ≠ .... ≠an
x-2 3x + 6
i.e., an improper rational fraction has been reduced to the
x - 2 3x + 1
± 3x  6 x ∴ = + + ........ +
P( x) A1 A2 An
Q( x) x - a1 x - a2 x - an
is an identity.
6x +1
13
x-2 ± 6 x  12
sum o f a polynomial 3x + 6 and a proper rational fraction
Where, the coeicients A1, A2, ..., An arenumbers to be found.
13
The method is explained by the following examples:
When a rational fraction is separated into partial fractions, the result is an identity; i.e.,
7 x + 25
it is true for all values of the variable.
( x + 3)( x + 4)
The evaluation of the coeicients of the partial fractions is based on the following Example 1: Resolve, into Partial Fractions.

7 x + 25
= +
theorem:
A B
( x + 3)( x + 4) x + 3 x + 4
“If two polynomials are equal for all values o f the variable, then the polynomials have Solution: Suppose
same degree and the coeicients of like powers of the variable in both the polynomials
must be equal”. Multiplying both sides by (x + 3) (x + 4), we get
7x + 25 = A(x + 4) + B(x + 3)
⇒
For example,
If px3 + qx2 - ax + b = 2x3 - 3x2 - 4x + 5, [x 7x + 25 = Ax + 4A + Bx + 3B
then p = 2, q = - 3 , a = 4 and b = 5. ⇒ 7x + 25 = (A + B)x + 4A + 3B
This is an identity in x.
P( x) So, equating the coeicients of like powers of x we have
5.3 Resolution of a Rational Fraction into Partial Fractions
Q( x) 7 = A + B and 25 = 4A + 3B
Solving these equations, we get A = 4 and B = 3 .
P( x)
Following are the main points of resolving a rational fraction into partial fractions:
Q( x)

+
4 3
x+3 x+4
i) The degree of p ( x) must be less than that of Q( x) . If not, divide and work with Hence the partial fractions are:
the remainder theorem.
ii) Clear the given equation of fractions. Alternative Method:
iii) Equate the coeicients of like terms (powers of x). 7 x + 25
= +
A B
( x + 3)( x + 4) x + 3 x + 4
iv) Solve the resulting equations for the coeicients. Suppose

⇒ 7x + 25 = A(x + 4) + B(x + 3)
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⇒ - 8 = 2C ∴ C-=
As two sides of the identity are equal for all values of x,
let us put x = -3, and x = -4 in it. 4
Putting x = -3, we get -21 + 25 = A(-3 + 4)
+ -
2 3 4
⇒ A=4 x -1 x - 2 x - 3
Hence partial fractions are:

Putting x = -4, we get -28 + 25 = B(-4 + 3)

⇒ B=3 Note: In the solution of examples 1 and 2. We observe that the value of the constants have
been found by substituting those values of x in the identities which can be got by
+
4 3
Hence the partial fractions are: x + 3 x + 4
putting each linear factor of the denominators equal to zero.

x 2 - 10 x + 13
In the Example 2
the denominator of A is x - 1, and the value of A has been found by putting
( x - 1)( x 2 - 5 x + 6)
a)
x - 1 = 0 i.e ;x = 1;
Example 2: Resolve into Partial Fractions.

Solution: The factor x2 - 5x + 6 in the denominator can be factorized and its factors are x - 3 b) the denominator of B is x - 2, and the value of B has been found by putting
and x - 2. x - 2 = 0 i.e., x = 2 ; and
the denominator of C is x - 3, and the value of C has been found by putting
x 2 - 10 x + 13 x 2 - 10 x + 13
c)
∴ = x - 3 = 0 i.e.,x = 3.
( x - 1)( x 2 - 5 x + 6) ( x - 1)( x - 2)( x - 3)
2 x3 + x 2 - x - 3
x 2 - 10 x + 13 x(2 x + 3)( x - 1)
Example 3: Resolve into Partial Fractions.
= + +
A B C
( x - 1)( x - 2)( x - 3) x -1 x - 2 x - 3
Suppose
Solution:
⇒ x2 - 10x + 13 = A(x - 2)(x - 3) + B(x - 1)(x - 3) + C(x - 1)(x - 2)
2 x3 + x 2 - x - 3
x(2 x + 3)( x - 1)
which is an identity in x.  is an improper fraction so, transform it into mixed from.
Putting x = 1 in the identity, we get
(1)2 - 10(1) + 13 = A(1 - 2)(1 - 3) + B(1 - 1)(1 - 3) + C(1 - 1)(1 - 2) = x (2x + 3)(x - 1)
1
⇒ 1 - 10 + 13 = A (-1) (-2) + B(0) (- 2) + C(0) (-1) 2 x3 + x 2 - 3x 2 x3 + x 2 - x - 3
Denominator
= 2x3 + x2 - 3x
± 2 x3 ± x 2  3x
4 = 2A ∴ A = 2 2 x -3

∴ Dividing 2x3 + x2 - x - 3 by 2x3 + x2 - 3x, we have

Putting x = 2 in the identity, we get
(2)2 - 10(2) + 13 = A(0)(2 - 3) + B(2 - 1)(2 - 3) + C(2 - 1)(0)
⇒ 4 - 20 + 13 = B (1)(-1) Quotient = 1 and Remainder = 2x - 3

⇒ - 3 = -B ∴ B = 2 x3 + x 2 - x - 3 2x - 3
∴ = +
3
x(2 x + 3)( x - 1) x(2 x + 3)( x - 1)
1
Putting x = 3 in the identity, we get
(3)2 - 10(3) + 13 = A(3 - 2)(0) + B(3 - 1) (0) + C(3 - 1)(3 - 2)
⇒ 9 - 30 + 13 = C(2) (1)
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2x - 3 x2 + a2
=
+ +
A B c
x(2 x + 3)( x - 1) x 2x + 3 x -1 ( x 2 + b 2 )( x 2 + c 2 )( x 2 + d 2 )
Suppose 11.

⇒ 2x - 3 = A(2x + 3)(x - 1) + B( x ) (x - 1) +C( x )(2x + 3) [Hint: Put x2 = y to make factors of the denominator linear]
which is an identity in x.
Putting x = 0 in the identity, we get A = 1 Case II: when Q( x ) has repeated linear factors:
If the polynomial has a factor (x - a) n, n 8 2 and n is a +ve integer, then may be written

Putting 2x + 3 = 0 ⇒ x = - in the identity, we get B = -

3 8 as the following identity:
2 5
∴ = + + ........ +
P( x) A1 A2 An
Putting x - 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 in the identity, we get C= - ( x - a1 ) ( x - a2 ) ( x - an ) n
1 2
Q( x)
5
where the coeicients A1, A2,....., An are numbers to be found.

Hence partial fractions are: 1 + - -

1 8 1 The method is explained by the following examples:
x 5(2 x + 3) 5( x - 1)
x2 + x - 1
( x + 2)3
Example 1: Resolve, into partial fractions.

Exercise 5.1
x2 + x - 1
= + +
A B C
( x + 2) x + 2 ( x + 2) ( x + 2)3
Solution: Suppose
Resolve the following into Partial Fractions: 3 2

x2 + 1 ⇒ x2 + x - 1 = A(x + 2)2 + B(x + 2) + C (i)

⇒ x2 + x -1 = A(x2 + 4x + 4) + B(x +2) + C
1
x -1 ( x + 1)( x - 1)
1. 2.
2
(ii)
Putting x + 2 = 0 in (i), we get
2x + 1 3x 2 - 4 x - 5 (-2)2 + (-2) - 1 = A(0) + B(0) + C
( x - 1)( x + 2)( x + 3) ( x - 2)( x 2 + 7 x + 10) ⇒ 1= C
3. 4.

Equating the coeicients of x2 and x in (ii), we get A =1

1 x
( x - 1)(2 x - 1)(3 x - 1) ( x - a )( x - b)( x - c)
5. 6. and 1 = 4A + B
⇒ 1=4 + B ⇒ B = -3
6 x3 + 5 x 2 - 7 2 x3 + x 2 - 5 x + 3
2 x2 - x - 1 2 x3 + x 2 - 3x - +
7. 8. 1 3 1
x + 2 ( x + 2) ( x + 2)3
Hence the partial fractions are: 2

( x - 1)( x - 3)( x - 5) 1
( x - 2)( x - 4)( x - 6) (1 - ax)(1 - bx)(1 - cx)
9. 10. 1
( x + 1) ( x 2 - 1)
Example 2: Resolve 2
into Partial Fractions.

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Solution: Here denominator = (x + 1)2 (x2 - 1)

= (x + 1)2 (x + 1) (x - 1) = (x + 1)3 (x - 1)
Exercise 5.2

∴ =
1 1 Resolve the following into Partial Fractions:
( x + 1) ( x - 1) ( x + 1)3 ( x - 1)
2 x 2 - 3x + 4 5x2 - 2 x + 3
2 2
4x
( x - 1)3 ( x + 2)3 ( x + 1) 2 ( x - 1)
1. 2. 3.

= + + +
A B C D
( x - 1)( x + 1) x - 1 x + 1 ( x + 1) ( x + 1)3
Suppose 3 2
9 1 x2
⇒ 1 = A (x + 1)3 + B(x +1)2( x - 1) + C(x - 1)(x + 1) + D(x - 1) ( x + 2) 2 ( x - 1) ( x - 3) 2 ( x + 1) ( x - 2)( x - 1) 2
4. 5. 6.
(i)
⇒ 1 = A(x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1) + B(x3 + x2 - x - 1) + C(x2 - 1) + D(x - 1)
⇒ 1 = (A + B)x3 +(3A + B + C)x2 +(3A - B + D)x+(A - B - C - D) (ii) x2 x -1
x - 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 in (i), we get,
1
( x - 1) 2 ( x + 1) ( x - 1)3 ( x + 1) ( x - 2)( x + 1)3
7. 8. 9.
Putting

⇒ A = 2x + 1
1
1 = A(2)3 2 x4
( x 2 - 1)( x + 1) 2 ( x + 3)( x - 1)( x + 2) 2 ( x - 3)( x + 2) 2
8 10. 11. 12.

Putting x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = -1 in (i), we get,

Case III: when Q( x ) contains non-repeated irreducible quadratic factor

1 = D(-1 - 1) ⇒ D= -
1 Deinition: A quadratic, factor is irreducible if it cannot be written as the product of two
2 linear factors with real coeicients. For example, x2 + x + 1 and x2 + 3 are irreducible quadratic
factors.
Equating the coeicients of x3 and x2 in (ii), we get
P( x)
⇒ B=-A ⇒ B= -
1 If the polynomial Q( x) contains non-repeated irreducible quadratic factor then
0 = A+B Q( x)
8 may be written as the identity having partial fractions of the form:

0 = 3A + B + C ⇒ 0 = - +C
3 1
⇒ C= -
1 Ax + B
ax 2 + bx + c
and where A and B the numbers to be found.
8 8 4

Hence the partial fractions are: The method is explained by the following examples:

- - -
1 1 1 1
8 + 8 + 4 + 2 = 1
-
1
-
1
-
1 3 x - 11
x - 1 x + 1 ( x + 1) ( x + 1) 8( x - 1) 8( x + 1) 4( x + 1) 2( x + 1)3
2 3 2 Example 1: Resolve
( x 2 + 1)( x + 3)
into Partial Fractions.

3 x - 11 Ax + B
= +
C
( x + 1)( x + 3) ( x + 1) ( x + 3)
Solution: Suppose 2 2

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⇒ 3x - 11 = (Ax + B ) (x + 3) + C(x2 + 1)
x+2 -x - 2
(i)
⇒ 3x - 11 = (A +C )x2 + (3A + B)x+(3B + C ) + 2
x + 2x + 3 x - 2x + 3
(ii)
⇒ x = - 3 in (i), we get
Hence the partial fractions are: 2
Putting x+3=0
-9 - 11 = C(9 + 1) ⇒ C = -2
Equating the coeicients of x2 and x in (ii), we get Exercise 5.3
0=A+C ⇒A=-C ⇒ A=2
3 = 3A + B ⇒ B = 3 - 3A ⇒B=3-6 ⇒ B = -3
Resolve the following into Partial Fractions:
and

2x - 3
- 9x - 7 3x + 7
2
x2 + 1 x + 3
1
( x 2 + 1)( x + 3) ( x 2 + 1)( x + 1) ( x 2 + 4)( x + 3)
Hence the partial fraction are:
1. 2. 3.
4 x2 + 8x
x + 2 x2 + 9
Example 2: Resolve 4 into Partial Fractions.
x 2 + 15 x2 x2 + 1
Solution: Here, denominator = x4 + 2x2 + 9 = (x2 + 2x + 3) (x2 - 2x + 3). ( x 2 + 2 x + 5)( x - 1) ( x 2 + 4)( x + 2) x3 + 1
4. 5. 6.

4 x2 + 8x 4 x2 + 8x
∴ = x2 + 2 x + 2
x4 + 2 x2 + 9 ( x 2 + 2 x + 3)( x 2 - 2 x + 3)
1 x4
( x 2 + 3)( x + 1)( x - 1) ( x - 1) 2 ( x 2 + 2) 1 - x4
7. 8. 9.

Suppose
x2 - 2 x + 3
4 x + 8x Ax + B Cx + D x4 + x2 + 1
= + 2
2 10.
( x + 2 x + 3)( x - 2 x + 3)
2 2
x + 2x + 3 x - 2x + 3
2

⇒ 4x2 + 8x = (Ax + B) ( x2 - 2x + 3) + (Cx + D) (x2 + 2x + 3)

Case IV: when Q( x ) has repeated irreducible quadratic factors

⇒
If the polynomial Q( x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factors
4x2 + 8x = (A + C) x3 + (-2A + B + 2C + D)x2
+ (3A - 2B + 3C + 2D)x + 3B + 3D (I) P( x)
(anx2 + bx + c)n, n 8 2 and n is a +ve integer, then may be written as the following
which is an identity in x.
Equating the coefficients of x3, x2, x, x0 in I, we have
Q( x)
identity:

A1 x + B1 Ax +B An x + Bn
= + +2 2 + 2
0=A+C (i)
4 = -2A + B + 2C + D
P( x)
a1 x + bx + c (a 2 x + b x + c) 2 (an x + bx + c) n
(ii) ......
8 = 3A - 2B + 3C + 2D
2 2
Q( x)
(iii)
0 = 3B + 2D (iv)
where A1, B1, A2, B2,..... An, Bn are numbers to be found. The method is explained through the
Solving (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we get
A = 1 , B = 2 , C = -1 D = -2
following example:
and

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4 x2 4 x 4 + 3x3 + 6 x 2 + 5 x 2 x 4 - 3x3 - 4 x
( x + 1) 2 ( x - 1) ( x - 1)( x 2 + x + 1) 2 ( x 2 + 2) 2 ( x + 1) 2
Example 1: Resolve 2 into partial fractions. 5. 6.

Ax + B Cx + D
= + +
4 x2 E
( x 2 + 1) 2 ( x - 1) x2 + 1 ( x 2 + 1) 2 x - 1
Solution: Let

⇒ 4x2 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 1)(x - 1) + (Cx + D )(x - 1) + E (x2 + 1)2 (i)

⇒ 4x2 = (A + E)x4 + (-A + B)x3 + ( A - B + C + 2E )x2
+(-A + B - C + D)x + (-B - D + E) (ii)
Putting x - 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 in (i), w e get
4 = E(1 + 1)2 ⇒ E =1
Equating the coeicients o f x , x , x , x, in (ii), w e get
4 3 2

0=A+E ⇒ A =- E ⇒ A = -1
0 =-A + B ⇒ B=A ⇒ B = -1
4 = A - B + C + 2E
⇒ C = 4 - A + B - 2E = 4 + 1 - 1 - 2 ⇒ C=2
0=-A+B-C+D
⇒ D=A-B+C=-1+1+2=2 ⇒ D=2

-x - 1 2x + 2
+ 2 +
1
x + 1 ( x + 1) x -1
Hence partial fractions are: 2 2

Exercise 5.4

Resolve into Partial Fractions.

x3 + 2 x + 2 x2
( x 2 + x + 1) 2 ( x 2 + 1) 2 ( x - 1)
1. 2.

2x - 5 8x2
( x 2 + 2) 2 ( x - 2) ( x 2 + 1) 2 (1 - x 2 )
3. 4.

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