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CHAPTER

2 Sets Functions
and Groups

Animation 2.1: Function

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O = The set of all odd integers = { ± 1,± 3,±5,...}.

2.1 Introduction E = The set of all even integers = {0,±2,±4,...}.

 
= x x = where p,q ∈ Z and q ≠ 0 
We are familiar with the notion of a set since the word is frequently used in everyday p
 
Q = The set of all rational numbers
speech, for instance, water set, tea set, sofa set. It is a wonder that mathematicians have q
 
= x x ≠ where p,q ∈ Z and q ≠ 0 
developed this ordinary word into a mathematical concept as much as it has become a p
 
Q’ = The set of all irrational numbers
language which is employed in most branches of modern mathematics. q

= The set of all real numbers = Q ∪ Q’

For the purposes of mathematics, a set is generally described as a well-deined
collection of distinct objects. By a well-deined collection is meant a collection, which is such
that, given any object, we may be able to decide whether the object belongs to the collection
Equal Sets: Two sets A and B are equal i.e., A=B, if and only if they have the same elements
or not. By distinct objects we mean objects no two of which are identical (same).
that is, if and only if every element of each set is an element of the other set.
The objects in a set are called its members or elements. Capital letters A, B, C, X, Y,
Thus the sets { 1, 2, 3 } and { 2, 1, 3} are equal. From the deinition of equality of sets
Z etc., are generally used as names of sets and small letters a, b, c, x, y, z etc., are used as
it follows that a mere change in the order of the elements of a set does not alter the set. In
members of sets.
other words, while describing a set in the tabular form its elements may be written in any
There are three diferent ways of describing a set
order.
i) The Descriptive Method: A set may be described in words. For instance, the set of all
vowels of the English alphabets. Note: (1) A = B if and only if they have the same elements means
ii) The Tabular Method: A set may be described by listing its elements within brackets. If if A = B they have the same elements and if A and B have the same elements
A is the set mentioned above, then we may write: then A = B.
A = {a,e,i,o,u}. (2) The phrase if and only if is shortly written as “if “.
iii) Set-builder method: It is sometimes more convenient or useful to employ the method
of set-builder notation in specifying sets. This is done by using a symbol or letter for an Equivalent Sets: If the elements of two sets A and B can be paired in such a way that each element
arbitrary member of the set and stating the property common to all the members. of A is paired with one and only one element of B and vice versa, then such a pairing is called a
Thus the above set may be written as: one-to-one correspondence between A and B e.g., if A = {Billal, Ahsan, Jehanzeb} and B = {Fatima,
A = { x |x is a vowel of the English alphabet} Ummara, Samina} then six diferent (1 - 1) correspondences can be established between A and B
This is read as A is the set of all x such that x is a vowel of the English alphabet.
The symbol used for membership of a set is U . Thus a U A means a is an element of A or
a belongs to A. c ∉ A means c does not belong to A or c is not a member of A. Elements of
Two of these correspondences are shown below; -

a set can be anything: people, countries, rivers, objects of our thought. In algebra we usually i). {Billal, Ahsan, Jehanzeb }
deal with sets of numbers. Such sets, alongwith their names are given below:-
N = The set of all natural numbers = {1,2,3,...}   
W = The set of all whole numbers = {0,1,2,...} {Fatima, Ummara, Samina }
Z = The set of all integers = {0,±1,+2....}.
Z ‘ = The set of all negative integers = {-1,-2,-3,...}.
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ii). {Billal, Ahsan, Jehanzeb) The set {1, 3, 5,.......9999} is a inite set but the set { 1, 3, 5, ...}, which is the set of all
positive odd natural numbers is an ininite set.
  
{Fatima, Samina, Ummara) Subset: If every element of a set A is an element of set B, then A is a subset of B. Symbolically
(Write down the remaining 4 correspondences yourselves) this is written as: A ⊆ B (A is subset of B)
Two sets are said to be equivalent if a (1 - 1) correspondence can be established In such a case we say B is a super set of A. Symbolically this is written as:
between them In the above example A and B are equivalent sets. B ⊇ A {B is a superset of A)

Example 1: Consider the sets N= {1, 2, 3,... } and O = {1, 3, 5,...} Note: The above deinition may also be stated as follows:
We may establish (1-1) correspondence between them in the following manner: A ⊆ B if x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}
Proper Subset: If A is a subset of B and B contains at least one element which is not an
     element of A, then A is said to be a proper subset of B. In such a case we write: A ⊂ B (A is a
{1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...} proper subset of B).
Thus the sets N and O are equivalent. But notice that they are not equal. Improper Subset: If A is subset of B and A = B, then we say that A is an improper subset of
Remember that two equal sets are necessarily equivalent, but the converse may not be B. From this deinition it also follows that every set A is an improper subset of itself.
true i.e., two equivalent sets are not necessarily equal.
Sometimes, the symbol ~ is used to mean is equivalent to. Thus N~O. Example 2: Let A = { a, b, c }, B = { c, a, b} and C = { a, b, c, d}, then clearly
A ⊂ C, B ⊂ C but A = B and B = A.
Order of a Set: There is no restriction on the number of members of a set. A set may have 0, Notice that each of A and B is an improper subset of the other because A = B
1, 2, 3 or any number of elements. Sets with zero or one element deserve special attention.
According to the everyday use of the word set or collection it must have at least two elements.
Note: When we do not want to distinguish between proper and improper subsets, we may
use the symbol ⊆ for the relationship. It is easy to see that: N f Z f Q f
But in mathematics it is found convenient and useful to consider sets which have only one
.
element or no element at all.
A set having only one element is called a singleton set and a set with no element (zero
number of elements) is called the empty set or null set.The empty set is denoted by the Theorem 1.1: The empty set is a subset of every set.
symbol φ or { }.The set of odd integers between 2 and 4 is a singleton i.e., the set {3} and the We can convince ourselves about the fact by rewording the deinition of subset as
set of even integers between the same numbers is the empty set. follows: -
The solution set of the equation x2 +1 = 0, in the set of real numbers is also the empty A is subset of B if it contains no element which is not an element of B.
set. Clearly the set {0} is a singleton set having zero as its only element, and not the empty set. Obviously an empty set does not contain such element, which is not contained by another
set.
Finite and Ininite sets: If a set is equivalent to the set {1, 2, 3,...n} for some ixed natural Power Set: A set may contain elements, which are sets themselves. For example if: C = Set
number n, then the set is said to be inite otherwise ininite. of classes of a certain school, then elements of C are sets themselves because each class is
Sets of number N, Z, Z’etc., mentioned earlier are ininite sets. a set of students. An important set of sets is the power set of a given set.
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The power set of a set S denoted by P (S) is the set containing all the possible subsets small sets (sets having small number of elements) to be universal. This is only an academic
of S. artiiciality.

Example 3: If A = {a, b}, then P (A)= {Φ , {a} , {b} , {a,b}} Exercise 2.1
Recall that the empty set is a subset of every set and every set is its own subset.
1. Write the following sets in set builder notation:
i) { 1, 2, 3, .........,1000} ii) { 0, 1,2,........., 100}

P (B ) = {Φ , {1} , {2} , {3} , {1,2} , {1,3} , {2 ,3} , {1,2 ,3}}

Example 4: If B = {1, 2, 3}, then
iii) { 0, ± 1, ± 2,............ ±1000} iv) { 0, -1, -2,.........,-500}
v) {100, 101,102, .........,400} vi) {-100,-101,-102,.., -500}
Example 5: If C = {a, b, c, d}, then vii) {Peshawar, Lahore, Karachi, Quetta}
viii) { January, June, July }
xi) The set of all odd natural numbers
x) The set of all rational numbers
Example 6: If D = {a}, then P(D)= {Φ ,{a}} xi) The set of all real numbers between 1and 2,
xii) The set of all integers between - 100 and 1000
Example 7: If E = { }, then P(E)= {Φ}
2. Write each of the following sets in the descriptive and tabular forms:-
Note: (1) The power set of the empty set is not empty. i) { x|x U N / x 710} ii) { x|x U N /4< x <12}
(2) Let n (S) denoted the number of elements of a set S, then n{P(S)} denotes the iii) { x|x U Z /-5< x <5} iv) { x|x U E /2< x 74}
number of elements of the power set of S. From examples 3 to 7 we get the v) { x|x U P / x <12} vi) { x|x U O/3< x <12}
following table of results: vii) { x|x U E /47 x 710} viii) { x|x U E /4< x <6}
ix) { x|x U O /57x 77} x) { x|x U O /57x <7}
xi) { x|x U N / x +4=0} xi) { x|x U Q/ x2 = 2}
xiv) { x|x U Q / x =-x}
n(s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
xiii) { x|x U / x = x}
/ x ∉ Q}
n{p(s)} 1=2 2=21
0
4=22 8=23 16=2 32=25
4

In general if n (S) = m, then, n P(S) =2m

xv) { x|x U / x ≠ x} xvi) { x|x U
3. Which of the following sets are inite and which of these are ininite?
i) The set of students of your class.
Universal Set: When we are studying any branch of mathematics the sets with which we
ii) The set of all schools in Pakistan.
have to deal, are generally subsets of a bigger set. Such a set is called the Universal set or
iii) The set of natural numbers between 3 and 10.
the Universe of Discourse. At the elementary level when we are studying arithmetic, we
iv) The set of rational numbers between 3 and 10.
have to deal with whole numbers only. At that stage the set of whole numbers can be treated
v) The set of real numbers between 0 and 1.
as Universal Set. At a later stage, when we have to deal with negative numbers also and
vi) The set of rationales between 0 and 1.
fractions, the set of the rational numbers can be treated as the Universal Set.
vii) The set of whole numbers between 0 and 1
For illustrating certain concepts of the Set Theory, we sometimes consider quite
viii) The set of all leaves of trees in Pakistan.
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ix) P (N) x) P { a, b, c}
xi) {1,2,3,4,...} xii) {1,2,3,....,100000000} viii) {5, 10, 15,.....,55555}, {5, 10, 15, 20,....... }
xiii) {x x| x U / x ≠ x} xiv) {x|xU / x2 =-16}
xv) { x | x U Q/ x2 =5} xvi) { x | x U Q / 07 x 71} 2.2 Operations on Sets
4. Write two proper subsets of each of the following sets: -
Just as operations of addition, subtraction etc., are performed on numbers, the
i) { a, b, c} ii) { 0, 1} iii) N iv) Z
operations of unions, intersection etc., are performed on sets. We are already familiar with
v) Q vi) vii) W viii) { x|x U Q / 0 < x 72}
them. A review of the main rules is given below: -

5. Is there any set which has no proper sub set? If so name that set.
Union of two sets: The Union of two sets A and B, denoted by A~B, is the set of all elements,

A ∪ B { x x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}
which belong to A or B. Symbolically;
6. What is the diference between {a, b} and {{a, b}}?

Thus if A = {1, 2, 3}, B = { 2, 3, 4, 5}, then A~B ={1,2,3,4,5}

7. Which of the following sentences are true and which of them are false?
i) { 1,2} = { 2,1} ii) Φ 5{{a}} iii) {a} 5 {{a}}
vii) Φ d{{a}}
Notice that the elements common to A and B, namely the elements 2, 3 have been written
v) {a}d {{a}} vi) ad{{a}}
only once in A~B because repetition of an element of a set is not allowed to keep the
elements distinct.
8. What is the number of elements of the power set of each of the following sets?
i) { } ii) {0,1} iii) {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
v) {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7} vi) {a, {b, c}} vii) {{a,b},{b,c},{d,e}} Intersection of two sets: The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A+B, is the set

A ∩ B = { x x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}
of all elements, which belong to both A and B. Symbolically;
9. Write down the power set of each of the following sets: -
ii) {+,-,%'} iii) { Φ }
Thus for the above sets A and B, A ∩ B ={2,3}
i) {9,11 } iv) {a, {b,c}}

10. Which pairs of sets are equivalent? Which of them are also equal?
Disjoint Sets: If the intersection of two sets is the empty set then the sets are said to be
i) {a, b, c}, {1, 2, 3}
disjoint sets. For example; if
ii) The set of the irst 10 whole members, {0, 1, 2, 3,....,9}
S1 = The set of odd natural numbers and S2 = The set of even natural numbers, then S1
iii) Set of angles of a quadrilateral ABCD,
and S2 are disjoint sets.
set of the sides of the same quadrilateral.
The set of arts students and the set of science students of a
iv) Set of the sides of a hexagon ABCDEF,
college are disjoint sets.
set of the angles of the same hexagon;
Overlapping sets: If the intersection of two sets is non-empty but neither is a subset of the
vi) {1,2,3,4,.....}, 1, , , ,....
1 1 1 other, the sets are called overlapping sets, e.g., if
 2 3 4 
v) {1,2,3,4,.....}, {2,4,6,8,.....}
L = {2,3,4,5,6} and M= {5,6,7,8,9,10}, then L and M are two overlapping sets.

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Complement of a set: The complement of a set A, denoted by A’ or AC relative to the universal Below are given some more diagrams illustrating basic operations on two sets in
diferent cases (lined region represents the result of the relevant operation in each case
Symbolically: A’ = { x x ∈ U ∧ x ∉ A}
set U is the set of all elements of U, which do not belong to A.
given below).
For example, if U=N, then E’ = O and O’=E

Example 1: If U = set of alphabets of English language,

C = set of consonants, A~B
W = set of vowels, then C’= W and W’= C.
Diference of two Sets: The Diference set of two sets A and B denoted by A-B consists of
all the elements which belong to A but do not belong to B.
The Diference set of two sets B and A denoted by B-A consists of all the elements, which

Symbolically, A-B = { x x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B} and B-A = { x x ∈ B ∧ x ∉ A}

belong to B but do not belong to A.
A+B

Example 2: If A = {1,2,3,4,5}, B = {4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, then

A-B = {1,2,3} and B-A = {6,7,8,9,10}.

Notice that A-B ≠ B-A.

Note: In view of the deinition of complement and diference set it is evident that for any
set A, A’ =U - A
A-B

2.3 Venn Diagrams

Venn diagrams are very useful in depicting visually the basic concepts of sets and
relationships between sets. They were irst used by an English logician and mathematician
John Venn (1834 to 1883 A.D). B-A
In a Venn diagram, a rectangular region represents the universal set and regions
bounded by simple closed curves represent other sets, which are subsets of the universal
set. For the sake of beauty these regions are generally shown as circular regions.

In the adjoining igures, the shaded circular region represents a set A

The above diagram suggests the following results: -
and the remaining portion of rectangle representing the universal set
U represents A’ or U - A.

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Note (1) Since the empty set contains no elements, therefore, no portion of U represents
Fig Relation between Result Suggested it.
No. A and B (2) If in the diagrams given on preceding page we replace B by the empty set (by
1. A and B disjoint sets A~B consists of all the elements of A and all the imagining the region representing B to vanish).
A+B = Φ elements of B. Also A~ Φ = A (FromFig. 1 o r 4)
n(A~B) = n(A) + n(B) A+ Φ = Φ (From Fig. 5 or 8)
A- Φ = A (From Fig. 9 or 12)
2. A and B are overlapping A~B contains elements which are Φ - A = Φ (FromFig. 13 or 16)
A+B ≠ Φ i) in A and not in B ii) in B and not in A iii) in both A Also by replacing B by A (by imagining the regions represented by A and B to coincide),
and B. Also we obtain the following results:
n (A~B)=n (A) + n(B) - (A+B) A ~A = A (From ig. 3 or 4)
A+A = A (From ig. 7 or 8)
3. A5 B A~B = B; n(A~B)=n(B) A-A =Φ (From ig. 12)
4. B5A A~B = A; n(A~B)=n(A)
Again by replacing B by U, we obtain the results: -
5. A+B = Φ A+B = Φ ; n(A+B)=0 A ~U = U (From fig. 3); A ∩ U = A (From fig. 7)
6. A+B ≠ Φ A+B contains the elements which are in A and B A - U = Φ (From ig. 11); U - A = A’ (From ig. 15)
(3) Venn diagrams are useful only in case of abstract sets whose elements are not
7. A5 B A+B= A; n(A+B)=n(A) speciied. It is not desirable to use them for concrete sets (Although this is
erroneously done even in some foreign books).
8. B5A A+B= B; n(A+B)=n(B)

A - B = A; n(A - B)=n(A)
9. A and B are disjoint sets. Exercise 2.2

n(A - B)= n(A) - n A+B

10. A and B are overlapping 1. Exhibit A ~ B and A +B by Venn diagrams in the following cases: -
A - B= Φ ; n(A - B)=0
11. A5 B i) A5B ii) B5A iii) A ~A ‘
A - B ≠ Φ; n(A - B)=n(A) - n(B)
iv) A and B are disjoint sets. v) A and B are overlapping sets
2. Show A - B and B - A by Venn diagrams when: -
12. B5A
13. A and B are disjoint B - A= B; n(B - A)=n(B)
n(B - A)= n(B) - n (A+B)
14. A and B are overlapping i) A and B are overlapping sets ii) A 5 B iii) B 5 A
15. A5 B B - A≠ Φ ; n(B - A)=n(B) - n(A)
B - A= Φ ; n(B - A)=0
3. Under what conditions on A and B are the following statements true?
iii) A - B = A
16. B5A
i) A ~ B = A ii) A ~ B = B
iv) A+B = B v) n ( A ~ B) = n (A) + n (B) vi) n ( A + B ) = n ( A )

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vii) A - B = A vii) n(A+B) = 0 ix) A ~ B =U Properties:

x) A~B = B ~ A xi) n(A+B ) = n(B). xii) U-A = Φ i) A ~ B = B~A (Commutative property of Union)
ii) A + B = B+A (Commutative property of Intersection)
4. Let U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, A = {2,4,6,8,10} , B = {1,2,3,4,5} and C = { 1,3,5,7,9} iii) A~ ( B~C ) = ( A~B)~C (Associative property of Union)
List the members of each of the following sets: - iv) A+(B+C ) = (A+B)+C (Associative property of Intersection).
i) AC ii) BC iii) A~B iv) A - B v) A~( B+C) = (A ~B)+( A~C ) (Distributivity of Union over intersection)
v) A+C vi) AC ~ CC vii) AC ~C . viii) UC vi) A+( B~C ) = ( A+B )~( A+C) (Distributivity of intersection over Union)

vii) ( A ∪ B)′ =A′ ∩ B′ De Morgan's Laws

5. Using the Venn diagrams, if necessary, ind the single sets equal to the following: - viii) ( A ∩ B)′ =A′ ∪ B′ 
i) Ac ii) A+U iii) A~ U iv) A ~ Φ v) Φ + Φ
Proofs of De Morgan’s laws and distributive laws:
i) (A~ B)’ = A’+ B’
Let x ∈ ( A ∪ B)′
6. Use Venn diagrams to verify the following: -
i) A - B = A + Bc ii) (A - B)c + B = B
⇒ x∉ A∪ B
⇒ x ∉ A and x ∉ B
⇒ x ∈ A/ and x ∈ B /
2.4 Operations on Three Sets
⇒ x ∈ A′ ∩ B′
If A, B and C are three given sets, operations of union and intersection can be performed But x is an arbitrary member of (A~B)’ (1)
on them in the following ways: - Therefore, (1) means that ( A~B ) ‘ 5 A‘+B‘ (2)
i) A ~ ( B ~ C ) ii) ( A ~ B ) ~ C iii) A +( B ~ C ) Now suppose that y d A’+B’
iv) ( A + B ) + C v) A ~( B + C) vi) (A +C) ~ (B+ C) ⇒ y ∈ A′ and y ∈ B′
vii) ( A ~ B )+ C viii) (A + B ) ~ C. ix) (A ~ C) + ( B ~ C) ⇒ y ∉ A and y ∉ B
Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2,3,4,5} and C = {3,4,5,6,7,8} ⇒ y∉ A∪ B
⇒ y ∈ ( A ∪ B)′
We ind sets (i) to (iii) for the three sets (Find the remaining sets yourselves).
i) B ~ C = {2,3,4,5,6,7,8 }, A~( B ~C) = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
Thus A‘+B ‘ 5(A~B)’
ii) A ~ B = {1,2,3,4,5}, (A ~B ) ~ C = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
From (2) and (3) we conclude that (3)
iii) B + C = {3,4,5}, A +( B+C ) = {3}
(A~ B)’ = A’+B’
ii) (A+B)’ = A’~B’
2.5 Properties of Union and Intersection It may be proved similarly or deducted from (i) by complementation
iii) A~(B+C) = (A~B)+(A~C)
We now state the fundamental properties of union and intersection of two or three Let x d A ~ ( B +C )
sets. Formal proofs of the last four are also being given. ⇒ x dA or x dB + C
⇒ If xdA it must belong to A~B and xdA~C

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⇒ xd(A~B)+(A~C) = {1,2,3 } ~ {3,4,5}

Also if xdB + C , then xdB and xdC. (1) = {1,2,3,4,5} (1)
⇒ xd A~B and xdA~C (A ~ B )+(A ~ C) = ({1,2,3}~{2,3,4,5 })+({1,2,3}~{3,4,5,6,7,8})
⇒ xd(A~B)+(A~C) = {1,2,3,4,5} + {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
Thus A~(B+C) 5(A~B)+(A~C) (2) = {1,2,3,4,5} (2)
Conversely, suppose that From (1) and (2),
y ∈ ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C ) A~( B +C ) = (A ~ B )+(A ~ C)
There are two cases to consider: - vi) Verify yourselves.
y ∈ A, y ∉ A vii) Let the universal set be U = { 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
In the irst case y U A ~(B+C) A ~B = {1,2,3} ~ {2,3,4,5} = {1,2,3,4,5}
If y ∉ A , it must belong to B as well as C (A ~B )’ ={6,7,8,9,10} (1)
i.e., y U (B+C) A’ = U - A = (4,5,6,7,8,9,10)
∴ y ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) B’ = U - B = { 1,6,7,8,9,10}
So in either case A‘ + B’ = (4,5,6,7,8,9,10 } + { 1,6,7,8,9,10}
yd ( A~B ) + ( A~C) L ydA~(B+C) = {6,7,8,9,10} (2)
thus ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C ) ⊆ A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) (3) From (1) and (2),
From (2) and (3) it follows that (A ~B) ‘ = A’ + B’
A~(B+C ) = ( A~B )+(A~C) viii) Verify yourselves.
iv) A +(B~C) = (A+B)~ (A+C) Veriication of the properties with the help of Venn diagrams.
i) and (ii): Veriication is very simple, therefore, do it

≡
It may be proved similarly or deducted from (iii) by complementation A

≡
yourselves, B~C
Verification of the properties: iii): In ig. (1) set A is represented by vertically lined ≡∨

≡
≡
region and B ~ C is represented by horizontally lined A~(B ~ C)
Example 1: Let A = { 1,2,3}, B = {2,3,4,5} and C= {3,4,5,6,7,8} region. The set A~(B ~ C) is represented by the region |||,≡ ∨

≡
i) A~B = {1,2 3} ~ {2,3,4,5} B~A = {2,3,4,5} ~ {1,2,3} which is lined either in one or both ways.
= {1,2,3,4,5} = { 2,3,4,5,1}
In igure(2) A ~B is represented by horizontally lined A ~B
∴ A ~B = B ~A

≡
region and C by vertically lined region. ( A ~ B ) ~ C is

≡ ≡
C

∨
ii) A+B = { 1,2,3}+{2,3,4,5} B+A = {2,3,4,5} + {1,2,3} represented by the region which is lined in either one (A~B)~C

≡
≡
= {2,3} ={2,3} or both ways.
∴A+B=B+A
(iii) and (iv) Verify yourselves.
(v) A~(B +C) = {1,2,3 } ~ ({2,3,4,5}+{3,4,5,6,7,8)

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≡
≡
From ig (1) and (2) we can see that A In ig. (8) doubly lined region represents.
A ~ (B ~C ) = (A~B)~C B ∩ C ||| A‘ + B‘ . A‘
(iv) In ig (3) doubly lined region represents. The two regions in ig (7). And (8) are the B‘

≡
A+(B+C
A +( B + C ) same, therefore, ( A ~ B )‘ = A‘ + B‘ A‘ + B‘

≡
In ig (4) doubly lined region represents (viii) Verify yourselves.
(A+B)+ C. A∩ B ≡
Note: In all the above Venn diagrams only overlapping sets have been considered.
Since in ig (3) and (4) these regions are the same C |||

≡
Veriication in other cases can also be efected similarly. Detail of veriication may
therefore, (A+B)+C
be written by yourselves.

≡
A+( B +C ) = ( A +B ) + C .

Exercise 2.3

(v) in ig. (5) A ~ ( B + C ) is represented by the A≡ 1. Verify the commutative properties of union and intersection for the following pairs of
B ∩ C |||
sets: -

≡ ∨≡
region which is lined horizontally or vertically
i) A = (1,2,3,4,5}, B = {4,6,8,10} ii) N,Z
B= .
or both ways. A~(B+C)
iii) A = { x|x U / x 80},

≡
≡
,

2. Verify the properties for the sets A, B and C given below: -

i) Associativity of Union ii) Associativity of intersection.
iii) Distributivity of Union over intersection.
A∪ B ≡
iv) Distributivity of intersection over union.
In ig. (6) ( A ~ B ) + ( A ~ C ) is represented by
A ∪ C |||
a) A = {1,2,3,4}, B ={3,4,5,6,7,8}, C = {5,6,7,9,10}
b) A = Φ ,
the doubly lined region. Since the two region in

≡
B= {0}, C = {0,1,2}
ig (5) and (6) are the same, therefore (A~B)+(A~C)
c) N, Z, Q
≡

3. Verify De Morgan’s Laws for the following sets:

U= { 1,2,3, ...., 20}, A = { 2,4,6,...., 20}and B ={1,3,5, ....,19}.
A ~ (B + C ) = ( A~B ) + ( A ~ C)
(vi) Verify yourselves.
A∪ B ≡
4. Let U = The set of the English alphabet
(vii) In ig (7) ( A ~ B ) ‘ is represented
( A ∪ B)′ |||
A = { x | x is a vowel}, B ={ y | y is a consonant},
by vertically lined region.
Verify De Morgan’s Laws for these sets.
5. With the help of Venn diagrams, verify the two distributive properties in the following
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cases w.r.t union and intersection. Deduction is much used in higher mathematics. In teaching elementary mathematics
i) A 5 B, A+C = Φ and B and C are overlapping. we generally resort to the inductive method. For instance the following sequences can be
ii) A and B are overlapping, B and C are overlapping but A and C are disjoint. continued, inductively, to as many terms as we like:
i) 2,4,6,... ii) 1,4,9,... iii) 1,-1,2,-2,3,-3,...
6. Taking any set, say A = {1,2,3,4,5} verify the following: -
i) A~ Φ =A
1 1 1 1 2 4
ii) A~A =A iii) A+A =A iv) 1,4,7,... v) , , ,...... vi) , , ,.......
3 12 36 10 100 1000

7. If U= {1,2,3,4,5,...., 20} and A = {1,3,5, ...., 19), verify the following:- As already remarked, in higher mathematics we use the deductive method. To start
i) A~A’ =U ii) A +U = A iii) A+A’ = Φ with we accept a few statements (called postulates) as true without proof and draw as many
conclusions from them as possible.
8. From suitable properties of union and intersection deduce the following results: Basic principles of deductive logic were laid down by Greek philosopher, Aristotle.
i) A+( A~B) = A~( A+B ) ii) A ~( A + B ) = A+( A ~B). The illustrious mathematician Euclid used the deductive method while writing his 13 books
of geometry, called Elements. Toward the end of the 17th century the eminent German
9. Using venn diagrams, verify the following results. mathematician, Leibniz, symbolized deduction. Due to this device deductive method became
i) A+B ‘ = A if A+B = Φ ii) (A - B) ~B = A ~ B. far more useful and easier to apply.
iii) (A - B ) +B = Φ iv) A~B = A ~( A ‘+B).
2.6.1 Aristotelian and non-Aristotelian logics
2.6 Inductive and Deductive Logic
For reasoning we have to use propositions. A daclarative statement which may be true
or false but not both is called a proposition. According to Aristotle there could be only two
In daily life we often draw general conclusions from a limited number of observations
possibilities - a proposition could be either true or false and there could not be any third
or experiences. A person gets penicillin injection once or twice and experiences reaction
possibility. This is correct so far as mathematics and other exact sciences are concerned. For
soon afterwards. He generalises that he is allergic to penicillin. We generally form opinions
instance, the statement a = b can be either true or false. Similarly, any physical or chemical
about others on the basis of a few contacts only. This way of drawing conclusions is called
theory can be either true or false. However, in statistical or social sciences it is sometimes
induction.
not possible to divide all statements into two mutually exclusive classes. Some statements
Inductive reasoning is useful in natural sciences where we have to depend upon
may be, for instance, undecided.
repeated experiments or observations. In fact greater part of our knowledge is based on
Deductive logic in which every statement is regarded as true or false and there is no
induction.
other possibility, is called Aristotlian Logic. Logic in which there is scope for a third or fourth
On many occasions we have to adopt the opposite course. We have to draw conclusions
possibility is called non-Aristotelian. we shall be concerned at this stage with Aristotelian
from accepted or well-known facts. We often consult lawyers or doctors on the basis of their
logic only.
good reputation. This way of reasoning i.e., drawing conclusions from premises believed to
be true, is called deduction. One usual example of deduction is: All men are mortal. We are
2.6.2 Symbolic logic
men. Therefore, we are also mortal.

For the sake of brevity propositions will be denoted by the letters p , q etc. We give a
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Example 2:
10 is a positive integer or p is a rational number. Find truth value of this disjunction.
brief list of the other symbols which will be used.
Symbol How to be read Symbolic expression How to be read i)
; not ;p Not p, negation of p
/ and p /q p and q Solution: Since the irst component is true, the disjunction is true.
∨ or p∨q p or q ii) A triangle can have two right angles or Lahore is the capital of Sind.
If p then q
D If... then, implies p Dq
p implies q Solution: Both the components being false, the composite proposition is false.
Is equivalent to, if and p if and only if q
G only if
p Gq
p is equivalent to q 2.7 Implication or conditional
Explanation of the use of the Symbols: A compound statement of the form if p then q , also written p implies q , is called a
p ;p
conditional or an implication, p is called the antecedent or hypothesis and q is called the
1) Negation: If p is any proposition its negation is denoted by ~p, read T F consequent or the conclusion.
‘not p‘. It follows from this deinition that if p is true, ~p is false and if A conditional is regarded as false only when the antecedent is true and consequent is
F T
p is false, ~p is true. The adjoining table, called truth table, gives the false. In all other cases it is considered to be true. Its truth table is, therefore, of the adjoining
possible truth- values of p and ~p. Table (1) form.
2) Conjunction of two statements p and q is denoted symbolically as p q p/q p q p Dq
Entries in the irst two rows are quite in consonance with
p/q (p and q). A conjunction is considered to be true only if both common sense but the entries of the last two rows seem to be T T T
T T T
its components are true. So the truth table of p / q is table (2). against common sense. According to the third row the conditional T F F
Example 1: T F F If p then q
i) Lahore is the capital of the Punjab and F T T
F T F is true when p is false and q is true and the compound proposition
Quetta is the capital of Balochistan. is true (according to the fourth row of the table) even when both its F F T
ii) 4 < 5/8 < 10 F F F
components are false. We attempt to clear the position with the help Table (4)
iii) 4 < 5/8 > 1 0 Table (2) of an example. Consider the conditional
iv) 2 + 2 = 3 /6 + 6 = 10 If a person A lives at Lahore, then he lives in Pakistan.
p∨q
Clearly conjunctions (i) and (ii) are true whereas (iii) and (iv) are false.
Disjunction of p and q is p or q. It is symbolically written p ∨ q .
p q If the antecedent is false i.e., A does not live in Lahore, all the same he may be living in
3)
The disjunction p ∨ q is considered to be true when at least one
Pakistan. We have no reason to say that he does not live in Pakistan.
T T T We cannot, therefore, say that the conditional is false. So we must regard it as true. It must be
of the components p and q is true. It is false when both of them remembered that we are discussing a problem of Aristotlian logic in which every proposition
are false. Table (3) is the truth table. T F T
must be either true or false and there is no third possibility. In the case under discussion there
F T T being no reason to regard the proposition as false, it has to be regarded as true. Similarly,
F F F when both the antecedent and consequent of the conditional under consideration are false,
there is no justiication for quarrelling with the proposition. Consider another example.
Table (3)
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A certain player, Z, claims that if he is appointed captain, the team will win the tournament. 2.7.1 Biconditional : p ↔ q
There are four possibilities: -
The proposition pDq /qDp i s shortly written pGq and is called the biconditional
i) Z is appointed captain and the team wins the tournament. Z’s claim is true.
or equivalence. It is read p if q (if stands for “if and only if ’)
ii) Z is appointed captain but the team loses the tournament. Z’s claim is falsiied. We draw up its truth table.
iii) Z is not appointed captain but the team all the same wins the tournament.There is no
reason to falsify Z’s claim. p q pDq qDp pG q
iv) Z is not appointed captain and the team loses the tournament. Evidently, blame cannot
be put on Z. T T T T T
It is worth noticing that emphasis is on the conjunction if occurring in the beginning T F F T F
of the ancedent of the conditional. If condition stated in the antecedent is not satisied we F T T F F
should regard the proposition as true without caring whether the consequent is true or
F F T T T
false.
Table (6)
For another view of the matter we revert to the example about a Lahorite:
‘If a person A lives at Lahore, then he lives in Pakistan’. From the table it appears that pGq is true only when both p and q are true or both p
p: A person A lives at Lahore. and q are false.
q: He lives in Pakistan
When we say that this proposition is true we mean that in this case it is not possible 2.7.2 Conditionals related with a given conditional.
that ‘A lives at Lahore’ is true and that ‘A does not live in Pakistan’ is also true, that is p → q
and ~ ( p/~ q) are both simultaneously true. Now the truth table of ~ ( p/~ q) is shown Let pDq be a given conditional. Then
below: i) qDp is called the converse of pDq;
p q ~q p/~ q ~ ( p/~ q) ii) ~ pD~ q is called the inverse of pDq;
iii) ~ q D~ p is called the contrapositive of pDq.
T T F F T
To compare the truth values of these new conditionals with those of pDq we draw
T F T T F
up their joint table.
F T F F T Given
Converse Inverse Contrapositive
F F T F T conditional
Table (5) p q ~p ~q pD q qDp ~ pD ~ q ~ q D~ p

Looking at the last column of this table we ind that truth values of the compound T T F F T T T T
proposition ~ ( p/~ q) are the same as those adopted by us for the conditional pDq. This T F F T F T T F
shows that the two propositions pDq and ~ ( p/~ q) are logically equivalent. Therefore, the F T T F T F F T
truth values adopted by us for the conditional are correct.
F F T F T T T T
Table (7)

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From the table it appears that called a tautology, for example, pDqG(~qD~p) is a tautology.(are already veriied by
i) Any conditional and its contrapositive are equivalent therefore any theorem may be a truth table).
proved by proving its contrapositive. ii) A statement which is always false is called an absurdity or a contradiction
ii) The converse and inverse are equivalent to each other. e.g., p D~ p

Example 3: Prove that in any universe the empty set Φ is a subset of any set A.
iii) A statement which can be true or false depending upon the truth values of the variables
involved in it is called a contingency e.g., (pDq)/(p v q) is a contingency.
(You can verify it by constructing its truth table).
First Proof: Let U be the universal set consider the conditional:
"x ∈U , x ∈ φ → x ∈ A (1)
2.7.4 Quantiiers

The antecedent of this conditional is false because no xUU, is a member of Φ . The words or symbols which convey the idea of quantity or number are called
Hence the conditional is true. quantiiers.
In mathematics two types of quantiiers are generally used.
Second proof: (By contrapositive) i) Universal quantiier meaning for all
The contrapositive of conditional (1) is Symbol used : "
"x ∈U , x ∉ A → x ∉ φ (2) ii) Existential quantiier: There exist (some or few, at least one) symbol used: ∃
The consequent of this conditional is true. Therefore, the conditional is true.
Hence the result. Example 5:
i) "xU A, p(x) is true.
Example 4: Construct the truth table ot [(pDq)/pDq]
∃xU A' p(x) is true.
(To be read : For all x belonging to A the statement p(x) is true).
ii)
Solution : Desired truth table is given below: -
(To be read : There exists x belonging to A such that statement p(x) is true).

The symbol ' stands for such that

p p pDq (pDq)/ p [(pDq)/pDq]

T T T T T
T F F F T
Exercise 2.4
F T T F T
F F T F T 1. Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following conditionals: -
Table (8) i) ~pDq ii) qD p iii) ~pD~q iv) ~qD~p
2.7.3 Tautologies
2. Construct truth tables for the following statements: -
i) A statement which is true for all the possible values of the variables involved in it is i) (pD~p )v(pDq) ii) ( p/~p)Dq

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iii) ~(pDq)G(p/~q) Note: (1) Evidently truth set of a tautology is the relevant universal set and that of an
absurdity is the empty set Φ .
3. Show that each of the following statements is a tautology: - (2) With the help of the above results we can express any logical formula in set-
i) (p/q)Dp ii) pD(p v q) theoretic form and vice versa.
iii) ~(pDq) Dp iv) ~q/ (pDq)D~p We will illustrate this fact with the help of a solved example.
Example 1: Give logical proofs of the following theorems: -
4. Determine whether each of the following is a tautology, a contingency or an absurdity: - (A, B and C are any sets)
i) p/~p ii) pD(qDp) iii) q v (~q v p) i) (A~B)’ = A‘+B‘ ii) A+( B ~C) = (A+B) ~(A+C)
5. Prove that p v (~ p/~ q) v (p/q) = p v ( ~ p/~ q) Solution: i) The corresponding formula of logic is
~ (p v q)=~ p/~ q (1)
We construct truth table of the two sides.
2.8 Truth Sets, A link between Set Theory and Logic.
p p ~ p ~q p v q ~(p v q) ~p /~q

Logical propositions p, q etc., are formulae expressed in terms of some variables. For T T F F T F F
the sake of simplicity and convenience we may assume that they are all expressed in terms T F F T T F F
of a single variable x where x is a real variable. Thus p = p(x) where, xU . All those values of F T T F T F F
x which make the formula p(x) true form a set, say P. Then P is the truth set of p. Similarly, F F T T F T T
the truth set, Q, of q may be deined. We can extend this notion and apply it in other cases.
The last two columns of the table establish the equality of the two sides of eq.(1)
i) Truth set of ~p: Truth set of ~p will evidently consist of those values of the variable for
(ii) Logical form of the theorem is
which p is false i.e., they will be members of P’ , the complement of P.
p / (q v r) = ( p / q) v ( p/ r)
ii) p v q: Truth set of p v q = p(x) v q(x) consists of those values of the variable for which p(x)
We construct the table for the two sides of this equation
is true or q(x) is true or both p(x) and q(x) are true. 5 8
1 2 3 4 6 7
Therefore, truth set of p v q will be:
p p r q v r p/(q v r) p/q p/r (p/q) v (p/r)
P~Q ={ x| p(x) is true or q(x) is true}
iii) p/q: Truth set of p(x) / q(x) will consist of those values of the variable for which both T T T T T T T T
p(x) and q(x) are true. Evidently truth set of T T F T T T F T
p/q = P+Q T F T T T F T T
={ x| p(x) is true /q(x) is true} T F F F F F F F
iv) pDq: We know that pDq is equivalent to ~p v q therefore truth set of pDq will be F T T T F F F F
P’~Q
F T F T F F F F
v) pGq: We know that p G q means that p and q are simultaneously true or false.
F F T T F F F F
Therefore, in this case truth sets of p and q will be the same i.e.,
F F F F F F F F
P=Q
Comparison of the entries of columns 5 and 8 is suicient to establish the desired result.
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Exercise 2.5 Solution: C = Set of children = {c1, c2, c3} and F = set of fathers = {m1, m2}
C % F = {(c1, m1), (c1, m2), (c2, m1,), (c2, m2), (c3, m1,), (c3, m2)}
Convert the following theorems to logical form and prove them by constructing truth r = set of ordered pairs (child, father).
tables: - = {(c1, m1),(c2, m1,),(c3, m2)}
1. (A+B)’ = A‘~B‘ 2. (A~B)~C = A~(B~C) Dom r = (c1, c2, c3}, Ran r = {m1, m2}
3. (A+B)+C = A+( B+C) 4. A~(B+C) = (A~B)+(A~C) The relation is shown diagrammatically in ig. (2.29).

2.9 Relations

In every-day use relation means an abstract type of connection between two persons
or objects , for instance, (Teacher, Pupil), (Mother, Son), (Husband, Wife), (Brother, Sister),
(Friend, Friend), (House, Owner). In mathematics also some operations determine relationship
between two numbers, for example: -

> : (5 , 4); square: (25, 5); Square root: (2,4); Equal: (2 % 2, 4).

Technically a relation is a set of ordered pairs whose elements are ordered pairs of
related numbers or objects. The relationship between the components of an ordered pair Example 2: Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Determine the relation r such that xry if x < y.
may or may not be mentioned.
Solution: A x A = {(1, 1),(1, 2),(1, 3),(2, 1), (2, 2),(2, 3),(3, 1),(3, 2),(3, 3)}
i) Let A and B be two non-empty sets, then any subset of the Cartesian product
A %B is called a binary relation, or simply a relation, from A to B. Ordinarily a Clearly, required relation is:
relation will be denoted by the letter r. r ={(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}, Dom r = {1, 2}, Ran r = {2, 3}
ii) The set of the irst elements of the ordered pairs forming a relation is called its
domain. Example 3: Let A = , the set of all real numbers.
iii) The set of the second elements of the ordered pairs forming a relation is called Determine the relation r such that x r y if y = x + 1
its range.
iv) If A is a non-empty set, any subset of A % A is called a relation in A. Some authors Solution: A x A= %
call it a relation on A. r = { (x,y)| y= x+1}
When x = 0, y = 1
Example 1: Let c1, c2, c3 be three children and m1, m2 be two men such that father of both x = - 1 , y = 0,
c1, c2 is m1 and father of c3 is m2. Find the relation {(child, father)} r is represented by the line passing through the points (0,1), (- 1,0).

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ii) Dom r =
iii) Clearly irst elements of no two ordered pairs of r can be equal. Therefore, in this case
r is a function.
Some more points belonging to r are: Into Function: If a function f : A D B is such that Ran
{(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (-2, -1), (-3 ,-2 ),(-4,-3)}
i)
f ⊂ B i.e., Ran f ≠ B, then f is said to be a function from A
Clearly, Dom r = , and Ran r = into B. In ig.(1) f is clearly a function. But Ran f ≠ B.
Therefore, f is a function from A into B.

f ={(1,2), (3,4), (5,6)}

2.10 Functions

A very important special type of relation is a function deined as below: - ii) Onto (Surjective) function: If a function f : A DB is
Let A and B be two non-empty sets such that: such that Ran f = B i.e., every element of B is the image
i) f is a relation from A t o B that is , f is a subset of A % B of some elements of A, then f is called an onto function
ii) Dom f = A or a surjective function.
iii) First element of no two pairs of f are equal, then f is said to be a function from A f = {(c1, m1),(c2, m1),(c3, m2)}
to B.
The function f is also written as:
f : AD B iii) (1-1) and into (Injective) function: If a function f from
which is read: f is a function from A t o B . A into B is such that second elements of no two of its
If (x, y) in an element of f when regarded as a set of ordered pairs, ordered pairs are equal, then it is called an injective
we write y = f (x). y is called the value of f for x or image of x under f. (1 - 1, and into) function. The function shown in ig (3) is
In example 1 discussed above such a function. f = {(1, a)(2, b)}

(1 -1) and Onto function (bijective function). If f is a

i) r is a subset of C % F
ii) Dom r ={ c1, c2, c3} = C; iv)
iii) First elements of no two related pairs of r are the same. function from A onto B such that second elements of no
two of its ordered pairs are the same, then f is said to be
(1 - 1) function from A onto B.
Therefore, r is a function from C to F.

Such a function is also called a (1 - 1) correspondence

In Example 2 discussed above
i) r is a subset of A % A;
ii) Dom r ≠ A between A and B. It is also called a bijective function.
Therefore, the relation in this case is not a function. Fig(4) shows a (1-1) correspondence between the sets f = {(a, z),(b, x),(c, yj}
In example 3 discussed above A and B.
i) r is a subset of
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(a, z), (b, x) and (c, y) are the pairs of corresponding elements i.e., in this case When x = 0, y = 2,
f = {(a, z), (b, x), (c, y)} which is a bijective function or (1 - 1) correspondence between the
2
sets A and B. When y = 0, x = = 0.6 nearly. So two points on the line
3
Set - Builder Notation for a function: We know that set-builder notation
is more suitable for ininite sets. So is the case in respect of a function are A (0, 2) and B = (0.6, 0).
comprising ininite number of ordered pairs. Consider for instance, the function Joining A and B and producing AB in both directions, we obtain
f = { (1,1), (2,4), (3, 9), (4, 16),...} the line AB i.e., graph of the given function.
Dom f = (1, 2, 3,4, ...}.and Ran f = {1,4,9, 16, ...}
This function may be written as: f = {(x, y) | y =x2, x d N } 1 2
For the sake of brevity this function may be written as: ii) The equation deining the function is y= x.
2
f = function deined by the equation y= x2 , x d N
Or, to be still more brief: The function x2 , x d N Corresponding to the values 0, ± 1, ±2, ±3 ... of x, values
In algebra and Calculus the domain of most functions is and if evident from the of y are 0, .5, 2, 4.5, ...
context it is, generally, omitted. We plot the points (0, 0), (!1, .5), (!2, 2), (!3, 4.5), ...
Joining them by means of a smooth curve and extending
2.10.1 Linear and Quadratic Functions it upwards we get the required graph. We notice that:
i) The entire graph lies above the x-axis.
The function {( x, y ) |=
y mx + c} is called a linear function, because its graph (geometric ii) Two equal and opposite values of x correspond to every value of y (but not vice
representation) is a straight line. Detailed study of a straight line will be undertaken in the versa).
next class. For the present it is suicient to know that an equationof the form iii) As x increases (numerically) y increases and there is no end to their ncrease.
y = mx + c or ax + by + c = 0 represents a straight line . This can be easily veriied Thus the graph goes ininitely upwards. Such a curve is called a parabola. The
by drawing graphs of a few linear equations with numerical coeicients. The function students will learn more about it in the next class.
{(x, y)|y = ax2 + bx + c} is called a quadratic function because it is deined by a quadratic
(second degree) equation in x, y. 2.11 Inverse of a function
Example 4: Give rough sketch of the functions
If a relation or a function is given in the tabular form i.e., as a set of ordered pairs, its

i) {( x, y ) 3 x + y = ii) {( x, y ) y =
1 2 inverse is obtained by interchanging the components of each ordered pair. The inverse of r
2} x}
2 and f are denoted r -1 and f -1 respectively.
If r or f are given in set-builder notation the inverse of each is obtained by interchanging
Solution:
x and y in the deining equation. The inverse of a function may or may not be a function.
i) The equation deining the function is 3x + y = 2
⇒ y = -3x + 2
The inverse of the linear function
{(x, y) | y = mx + c} is {(x, y) | x = my + c} which is also a linear function. Briely, we
We know that this equation, being linear, represents a straight line. Therefore, for
may say that the inverse of a line is a line.
drawing its sketch or graph only two of its points are suicient.
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The line y = x is clearly self-inverse. The function deined by this equation i.e., the Exercise 2.6
function {(x, y) | y = x} is called the identity function.
1. For A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, ind the following relations in A. State the
Example 6: Find the inverse of
domain and range of each relation. Also draw the graph of each.
i) {(1, 1}, (2,4), (3,9), (4, 16),... xdZ+},
i) {(x, y) | y = x} ii) {(x, y)| y + x = 5}
ii) {(x, y) | y = 2x + 3,x d } iii) {(x, y)| x2 + y2=a2}.
ii) {(x, y) | x + y < 5} iv) {(x, y)|x + y > 5}
Tell which of these are functions.
2. Repeat Q -1 when A = , the set of real numbers. Which of the real lines are functions.
3. Which of the following diagrams represent functions and of which type?
Solution:
i) The inverse is:
{(2,1), (4, 2), (9, 3), (16, 4 )...} .
This is also a function.

Note: Remember that the equation

y = x , x 80
deines a function but the equation y2 = x, x 8 0 does not deine a function.

The function deined by the equation

y= x , x 80
4. Find the inverse of each of the following relations. Tell whether each relation and its
is called the square root function.
The equation y2 = x ⇒ y = ± x
inverse is a function or not: -
i) {(2,1), (3,2), (4,3), (5,4), (6,5)} ii) {(1,3), (2,5), (3,7), (4,9), (5,11)}
Therefore, the equation y2 = x (x 80) may be regarded as deining the union of the iii) {(x, y) | y = 2x + 3,x d } iv) {(x, y) | y2= 4ax ,x80 }
functions deined by
x , x 80 and y = - x , x 80.
v) {(x, y) | x2+ y2 = 9 , |x| 7 3,|y| 7 3 }
y=
ii) The given function is a linear function. Its inverse is: 2.12 Binary Operations
{(x, y)| x = 2y + 3}
which is also a linear function.
In lower classes we have been studying diferent number systems investigating the
Points (0, 3), (-1.5, 0) lie on the given line and points (3, 0),
(0, -1.5) lie on its inverse. (Draw the graphs yourselves).
properties of the operations performed on each system. Now we adopt the opposite course.
We now study certain operations which may be useful in various particular cases.
The lines l, i’ are symmetric with respect to the line y = x. This quality of symmetry is
An operation which when performed on a single number yields another number of the
true not only about a linear n function and its inverse but is also true about any function of
same or a diferent system is called a unary operation.
a higher degree and its inverse (why?).
Examples of Unary operations are negation of a given number, extraction of square
roots or cube roots of a number, squaring a number or raising it to a higher power.
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We now consider binary operation, of much greater importance, operation which

requires two numbers. We start by giving a formal deinition of such an operation. Note: The elements of the set of this example are the fourth roots of unity.
.... (read as star) on a non-empty set G is a function which
w w2
A binary operation denoted as %
associates with each ordered pair (a, b), of elements of G, a unique element, denoted as a % .... - 1
w w2
Example 5: It can be easily veriied that ordinary
b of G. 1 1
w w w2
multiplication (but not addition) is an operation on the
set {1,w,w2} where w3 =1. The adjoining table may be used
In other words, a binary operation on a set G is a function from the set G % G to the set 1
G. For convenience we often omit the word binary before operation. w 2
w 2
1 w
for the veriication of this fact.
.... is an operation on G, we shall say G is closed with respect to %
Also in place of saying % .... .
(w is pronounced omega)
Example 1: Ordinary addition, multiplication are operations on N. i.e., N is closed with
Operations on Residue Classes Modulo n.
respect to ordinary addition and multiplication because
" a ,bd N , a + b d N / a. b d N
Three consecutive natural numbers may be written in the form:
3n, 3n +1, 3n + 2 When divided by 3 they give remainders 0, 1, 2 respectively.
(" stands for” for all” and / stands for” and”)
Any other number, when divided by 3, will leave one of the above numbers as the
reminder. On account of their special importance (in theory of numbers) the remainders
Example 2: Ordinary addition and multiplication are operations on E, the set of all even
like the above are called residue classes Modulo 3. Similarly, we can deine Residue
natural numbers. It is worth noting that addition is not an operation on O, the set of old
classes Modulo 5 etc. An interesting fact about residue classes is that ordinary addition and
natural numbers.
multiplication are operations on such a class.

Example 3: With obvious modiication of the meanings of the symbols, let E be any
Example 6: Give the table for addition of elements of the set of residue classes modulo 5.
even natural number and O be any odd natural number, then + E O
E + E = E (Sum of two even numbers is an even number).
E E O Solution: Clearly {0,1,2,3,4} is the set of residues that + 0 1 2 3 4
E +O = O
O O E we have to consider. We add pairs of elements as in 0 0 1 2 3 4
and O+O = E
ordinary addition except that when the sum equals
1 1 2 3 4 0
or exceeds 5, we divide it out by 5 and insert the
These results can be beautifully shown in the form of a table given above: 2 2 3 4 0 1
remainder only in the table. Thus 4 + 3 = 7 but in
This shows that the set {E, O} is closed under (ordinary) addition. 3 3 4 0 1 2
place of 7 we insert 2(= 7#5) in the table and in place
The table may be read (horizontally). 4 4 0 1 2 3
of 2 + 3 = 5 , we insert 0(= 5#5).
E+ E = E, E + O = O;
O+O = E, O+E=O
Example 7:
-1 -i
Give the table for addition of elements of the set of residue classes modulo 4.
- 1 i
Example 4: The set (1 ,-1, i, -i } where i = -1 is closed 1 1 -1 i -i Solution: Clearly {0,1,2,3}is the set of residues that we have to
+ 0 1 2 3

-1 -1 -i
w.r.t multiplication (but not w. r. t addition). This 0 0 1 2 3
1 i consider. We add pairs of elements as in ordinary addition except
-i -1
can be veriied from the adjoining table. 1 1 2 3 0
i i 1 that when the sum equals or exceeds 4, we divide it out by 4 and
2 2 3 0 1
-i -i -1
insert the remainder only in the table. Thus 3 + 2 = 5 but in place 3 3 0 1 2
i 1
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.
of 5 we insert 1( = 5#4 ) in the table and in place of 1 + 3 = 4 , we insert 0(= 4#4). ii) Associativity: % ... is said to be associative on S if

a % .... (b % .... c) = (a % .... b) % .... c " a,b,cdS.

Example 8: Give the table for multiplication of elemnts of the set of residue classes modulo iii) Existence of an identity element: An element edS is called an identity element
4. w.r.t % .... if

Solution: Clearly {0,1,2,3} is the set of residues that we have to a % .... e = e % .... a = a, " adS.
- 0 1 2 3
consider. We multiply pairs of elements as in ordinary
0 0 0 0 0 iv) Existence of inverse of each element: For any element adS,∃ an element a’dS
multiplcation except that when the product equals or exceeds 4, such that
1 0 1 2 3
we divide it out by 4 and insert the remainder only in the table. a % .... a’ = a’ % .... a = e (the identity element)
Note: (1) The Symbol ∃ stands for ‘there exists’.
2 0 2 0 2
Thus 3%2=6 but in place of 6 we insert 2 (= 6#4 )in the table and 3 0 3 2 1
in place of 2%2=4, we insert 0(= 4#4). (2) Some authors include closure property in the properties of an operation. Since
this property S is already included in the deinition of operation we have considered
Example 9: Give the table for multiplication of elements of the set of residue classes modulo it unnecessary to mention it in the above list.
8. (3) Some authors deine left identity and right identity and also left inverse and right
inverse of each element of a set and prove uniqueness of each of them. The
Solution: Table is given below: following theorem gives their point of view: -
- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Theorem:
i) In a set S having a binary operation % .... a left identity and a right identity are the same.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ii) In a set having an associative binary Operation left inverse of an element is equal to
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
its right inverse.
2 0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6 Proof:
3 0 3 6 1 4 7 2 5 ii) Let e’ be the left identity and e” be the right identity. Then
e’ %.... e” = e’ (a e” is a right identity)
4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4
5 0 5 2 7 4 1 6 3 = e” (a e’ is a left identity)
6 0 6 4 2 0 6 4 2 Hence e’ = e” = e
Therefore, e is the unique identity of S under % ....
7 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ii) For any a U S , let a’, a’’ be its left and right inverses respectively then
Note: For performing multiplication of residue classes 0 is generally omitted. .... (a %
a’ % .... a”) = a’ %
.... e (a a” is right inverse of a)
= a’ (a e is the identity)
2.12.1 Properties of Binary Operations Also (a’ % .... a) % .... a” = e % .... a” (a a’ is left inverse of a)
= a”
Let S be a non-empty set and % .... a binary operation on it. Then %
.... may possess one or .... (a % .... a”) = (a’ %.... a) % .... a” %
.... is associative as supposed)
But a’ %
more of the following properties: - a a’ = a”
i) Commutativity: % .... is said to be commutative if
.... a " a,bd S.
Inverse of a is generally written as a-1.
a% .... b = b %

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Example 10: Let A =(1,2,3,...., 20}, the set of irst 20 natural numbers. 3. Show that the adjoining table is that of ....
% 0 1 2 3 4
Ordinary addition is not a binary operation on A because the set is not closed w.r.t. addition. multiplication of the elements of the set of
For instance, 10 + 25= 25 ∉ A
0 0 0 0 0 0
residue classes modulo 5. 1 0 1 2 3 4
2 0 2 4 1 3
Example 11: Addition and multiplication are commutative and associative operations on 3 0 3 1 4 2
the sets 4 0 4 3 2 1
N,Z,Q, , (usual notation),
e.g. 4%5 = 5%4, 2 +(3-+5) = (2+3) + 5 etc. 4. Prepare a table of addition of the elements of the set of residue classes modulo 4.
5. Which of the following binary operations shown in tables (a) and (b) is commutative?
Example 12: Verify by a few examples that subtraction is not a binary operation on N but it
.... a b c d ....
% a b c d
is an operation on Z, the set of integers. %
a a c b d a a c b d
Exercise 2.7 b b c b a b c d b a
c c d b c c b b a c
1. Complete the table, indicating by a tick mark those properties which are satisied by the d d a c d
d a a b b
speciied set of numbers.
(a) (b)

→
Set of numbers Natural Whole Integers Rational Reals
Property ↓ 6. Supply the missing elements of the third row of the ....
% a b c d
.... may be associative.
given table so that the operation % a a b c d
Closure +
- b b a c d
Associative c - - - -
+
d d c c d
-
Identity + 7. What operation is represented by the adjoining table? ....
% 0 1 2 3
- Name the identity element of the relevant set, if it exists. 0 0 1 2 3
Inverse + Is the operation associative? Find the inverses of 0,1,2,3, 1 1 2 3 0
- if they exist. 2 2 3 0 1
Commutative 3 3 0 1 2
+
- 2.13 Groups

2. What are the ield axioms? In what respect does the ield of real numbers difer from We have considered, at some length, binary operations and their properties. We now
that of complex numbers? use our knowledge to classify sets according to the properties of operations deined on
them.

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First we state a few preliminary deinitions which will culminate in the deinition of a Example 5: Consider Z, the set of integers together with the operation of multiplication.
group. Product of any two integers is an integer.
Groupoid: A groupoid is a non-empty set on which a binary operation % .... is deined. Also product of integers is associative because "a,b,cdZ a.(b.c) = (a.b).c
Some authors call the system (S, % .... ) a groupoid. But, for the sake of brevity and Therefore, (Z,.) is a semi-group.
convenience we shall call S a groupoid, it being understood that an operation % .... is deined

on it. Example 6: Let P(S) be the power-set of S and let A,B,C, ... be the members of P. Since union
In other words, a closed set with respect to an operation % .... is called a groupoid. of any two subsets of S is a subset of S, therefore P is closed with respect to ~ . Also the
operation is associative.
Example 1: The set {E ,O} where E is any even number and O is any odd number, (as already (e.g. A ~ ( B ~ C ) = ( A ~ B ) ~ C , which is true in general),
seen) are closed w.r.t. addition. Therefore, (P(S),~) is a semi-group.
It is, therefore, a groupoid. Similarly ( P(S ),+) is a semi-group.

Example 2: The set of Natural numbers is not closed under operation of subtraction e.g., Example 7: Subtraction is non-commutative and non-associative on N.
For 4, 5dN, 4 - 5 = -1∉ N
Thus (N, - ) is not a groupoid under subtraction. Solution: For 4, 5, 6,dN, we see that
4#5 =#1 and 5#4 = 1
Example 3: As seen earlier with the help of a table the set {1,-1,i,-i}, is closed w.r.t. . Clearly 4#5 ≠ 5#4
multiplication (but not w.r.t. addition). So it is also a groupoid w.r.t %. Thus subtraction is non-commutative on N.
Semi-group: A non-empty set S is semi-group if; Also 5#(4#1)= 5#(3)=2 and (5#4)#1 = 1#1 = 0
i) It is closed with respect to an operation % .... and Clearly 5#(4#1) ≠ (5#4 )#1
ii) The operation % .... is associative. Thus subtraction is non-associative on N.
As is obvious from its very name, a semi-group satisies half of the conditions required
.... on A deined by
Example 8: For a set A of distinct elements, the binary operation %
for a group.
x%.... y = x, " x, ydA

Example 4: The set of natural numbers, N, together with the operation of addition is a semi- is non commutative and assocaitve.
group. N is clearly closed w.r.t. addition (+).
Also " a,b,cdN, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c Solution : Consider
.... y = x .... x = y
Therefore, both the conditions for a semi-group are satisied. x% and y %
Clearly .... y ≠ y %
x% .... x
.... is non-commutative on A.
Non-commutative or non-abelian set: A set A is non-commutative if commutative law Thus %
does not hold for it.
For example a set A is non-commutative or non-abilian set under % .... when is deined as: Monoid: A semi-group having an identity is called a monoid i.e., a monoid is a set S;
" x, ydx % y = x. .... .
. ...
i) which is closed w.r.t. some operation %
.... y = x and y %
.... x = y indicates that A is non-commutative or non-abilian set. .... is associative and
the operation %
Clearly x % ii)
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iii) it has an identity. Example 12: The set N w.r.t. +

Condition (i) colsure: satisied i.e., " a, bd N, a + b d N
Example 9: The power-set P(S) of a set S is a monoid w.r.t. the operation ~,because, as seen (ii) Associativity: satisied i.e.,
above, it is a semi-group and its identity is the empty-set Φ because if A is any subset of S, " a,b,c d N, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
Φ ~A = A~ = A (iii) and (iv) not satisied i.e., neither identity nor inverse of any element exists.
∴N is only a semi-group. Neither monoid nor a group w.r.t. +.
Example 10: The set of all non negative integers i.e., Z+ ~{0}
i) is clearly closed w.r.t. addition, Example 13: N w.r.t -
ii) addition is also associative, and Condition: (i) Closure: satisied
iii) 0 is the identity of the set. " a, bd N, a, bd N
(a + 0 = 0 + a = a " adZ+~{0}) (ii) Associativity: satisied
∴the given set is a monoid w.r.t. addition. " a,b,cd N, a.(b.c) = (a.b).c
Note: It is easy to verify that the given set is a monoid w.r.t. multiplication as well but not (iii) Identity element, yes, 1 is the identity element
w.r.t. subtraction (iv) Inverse of any element of N does not exist in N, so N is a monoid but not a
group under multiplication.
Example 11: The set of natural numbers, N. w.r.t. -
i) the product of any two natural numbers is a natural number; Example 14: Consider S = {0,1,2} upon which operation +has been performed as shown in
ii) Product of natural numbers is also associative i.e., the following table. Show that S is an abelian group under +.
" a, b, cdN a.(b.c) = (a.b).c
iii) 1dN is the identity of the set. Solution :
∴N is a monoid w.r.t. multiplication i) Clearly S as shown under the operation is closed. + 0 1 2
ii) The operation is associative e.g 0 0 1 2
Note: N is not a monoid w.r.t. addition because it has no identity w.r.t. addition. 0 + (1 + 2) = 0 + 0 = 0 1 1 2 0
(0 + 1) + 2 = 1 + 2 = 0 etc. 2 2 0 1
.
Deinition of Group: A monoid having inverse of each of its elements under % ... is called a

group under % .... . That is a group under % .... is a set G (say) if

iii) Identity element 0 exists.
i) G is closed w.r.t. some operation % ....
iv) Inverses of all elements exist, for example
ii) The operation of % .... is associative;
0 + 0 = 0, 1 + 2 = 0, 2 + 1 = 0
iii) G has an identity element w.r.t. % .... and
⇒ 0-1= 0 1-1 = 2, 2-1 = 1
iv) Every element of G has an inverse in G w.r.t. % .... .
v) Also + is clearly commutative e.g., 1 + 2 = 0 = 2 + 1
If G satisies the additional condition: Hence the result,
v) For every a,bdG
.... b= b %
a % .... a
Example 15: Consider the set S = {1,-1,i -i). Set up its multiplication table and show that the
then G is said to be an Abelian* or commutative group under % ....
set is an abelian group under multiplication
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ab = ac ⇒ a -1 (ab) = a -1(a c)
- 1 -1 i -i
Solution : Proof: (i)
⇒
-i
i) S is evidently closed w.r.t.-. (a -1a)b = (a -1a)c (by associative law)
⇒
1 1 -1 i
-1 -1 1 -i
ii) Multiplication is also associative eb = ec (∴a -1a = e)
i ⇒
-i -1 1
(Recall that multiplication of complex numbers is associative) b=c

-i -i
i i
1 -1
iii) Identity element of S is 1. ii) Prove yourselves.
iv) Inverse of each element exists. i
Each of 1 and -1 is self inverse. 2.14 Solution of linear equations
i and - i are inverse of each other.
v) - is also commutative as in the case of C, the set of complex numbers. Hence given a,b being elements of a group G, solve the following equations:
set is an Abelian group. i) ax = b, ii) xa = b

Example : Let G be the set of all 2 % 2 non-singular real matrices, then under the usual Solution : (i) Given: ax = b ⇒ a-1(ax) = a -1b
multiplication of matrices, G is a non-abelian group.
Condition (i) Closure: satisied; i.e., product of any two 2 % 2 matrices is again a matrix of ⇒ (a -1a) x= a-1b (by associativity)
order 2 % 2. ⇒ ex = a -1b
(ii) Associativity: satisied ⇒ x =a-1b which is the desired solution.
For any matrices A , B and C conformable for multiplication.
ii) Solve yourselves.
A%(B%C)=(A%B)%C.
So, condition of associativity is satisied for 2 % 2 matrices
Note: Since the inverse (left or right) of any element a of a group is unique, from the above
1 0 
(iii)   is an identity matrix.
procedure, it follows that the above solution is also unique.
0 1 
(iv) As G contains non-singular matrices only so, it contains inverse of each of its 2.15 Reversal law of inverses
elements.
(v) We know that AB ≠ BA in general. Particularly for G, AB ≠ BA.
If a,b are elements of a group G, then show that
Thus G is a non-abilian or non-commutative gorup.
(ab)-1 = b-1a-1
Proof: (ab) (b-1a -1) = a(bb-1 )a-1 (Associative law )
Finite and Ininite Gorup: A gorup G is said to be a inite group if it contains inite number
= a e a -1
of elements. Otherwise G is an ininite group.
= aa -1
The given examples of groups are clearly distinguishable whether inite or ininite.
=e
∴a b and b-1a-1 are inverse of each other.
Cancellation laws: If a,b,c are elements of a group G, then
i) ab = ac ⇒ b = c (Left cancellation Law)
ba = ca ⇒ b = c
Note: The rule can obviously be extended to the product of three or more elements of a
ii) (Right cancellation Law) group.
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2. Sets Functions and Groups eLearn.Punjab 2. Sets Functions and Groups eLearn.Punjab

.
Theorem: If (G, %
... ) is a group with e its identity, then e is unique.

- {0}, % ) inverse of 3 is
1
ii) in group ( etc.
3
Proof: Suppose the contrary that identity is not unique. And let e’ be another identity.
e, e’ being identities, we have Exercise 2.8
.
... e = e %.... e’= e’
e’ % (e is an identity) (i)
. .
e’ %... e = e % ... e’ = e ( e’ i s an identity) (ii) 1. Operation + performed on the two-member set G = {0,1}is shown in the adjoining table.
Comparing (i) and (ii) Answer the questions: -
e’ = e. + 0 1
Thus the identity of a group is always unique. i) Name the identity element if it exists? 0 0 1
ii) What is the inverse of 1 ?
1 1 0
Examples: iii) Is the set G, under the given operation a group?
i) (Z, +) has no identity other then 0 (zero). Abelian or non-Abelian?
ii) ( - {0}, % ) has no identity other than 1. 2. The operation + as performed on the set {0,1,2,3} is shown + 0 1 2 3
iii) (C,+) has no identity other than 0 + 0i. in the adjoining table, show that the set is an Abelian group? 0 0 1 2 3
iv) (C,.) has no identity other than 1 + 0i. 3. For each of the following sets, determine whether or not the
1 1 2 3 0

1 0 
set forms a group with respect to the indicated operation.
2 2 3 0 1
( M2,.) has no identity other than  
0 1  .
v) 3 3 0 1 2

where M2 is a set of 2 % 2 matrices. Set Operation

+
i) The set of rational numbers %
Theoram: If (G, %
.
... ) is a group and adG, there is a unique inverse of a in G. ii) The set of rational numbers

+
iii) The set of positive rational numbers %
Proof: Let (G, %
.
... ) be a group and adG. iv) The set of integers
Suppose that a’ and a’’ are two inverses of a in G. Then v) The set of integers % + E O
a’ = a’ % .... e = a’ % .... (a %
.... a”) .... )
(a”is an inverse of a w.r.t. % 4. Show that the adjoining table represents the sums of the elements
E E O
= (a’ % .... a) %
.... a” (Associative law in G). of the set {E, O}. What is the identity element of this set? Show that this
O O E
set is an abelian group.
Show that the set {1 ,w,w2}, when w3=1, is an Abelian group w.r.t. ordinary multiplication.
=e % .... a’’ (a’ is an inverse of a).
= a’’ (e is an identity of G). 5.
Thus inverse of a is unique in G. 6. If G is a group under the operation and a, b d G, ind the solutions of the equations:
a% .... x = b, x%.... a = b

Examples 16: 7. Show that the set consisting of elements of the form a + 3 b (a, b being rational), is an

i) in group ( Z, + ), inverse of 1 is -1 and inverse of 2 is -2 and so on.

abelian group w.r.t. addition.
8. Determine whether,(P(S), %.... ), where %
.... stands for intersection is a semi-group, a monoid

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2. Sets Functions and Groups eLearn.Punjab

or neither. If it is a monoid, specify its identity.

9. ....
Complete the following table to obtain a semi-group under %

....
% a b c
a c a b
b a b c
c - - a
10. Prove that all 2 % 2 non-singular matrices over the real ield form a non-abelian group
under multiplication.

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